PowerLecture:

Chapter 10

Immunity
 Learning Objectives
 Describe typical external barriers that
organisms present to invading organisms.
 Understand how the lymphatic system
contributes to the body’s defenses.
 Understand how vertebrates (especially
mammals) recognize and discriminate
between self and nonself tissues.
 Distinguish between antibody-mediated and
cell-mediated patterns of immune
responses.
 Learning Objectives (cont’d)
 Describe some examples of immune
failures and identify as specifically as you
can which weapons in the immunity arsenal
fail in each case.
 Impacts/Issues

The Face of AIDS

 The Face of AIDS
 Viruses, such as HIV, have
wide ranging impacts on human
health.
 At least 40 million people are
infected with HIV; 12 million
African children alone have been
orphaned by AIDS.
 Rates of new HIV infection are
declining in some areas, but we
still have no effective vaccine to
prevent infection.
 The Face of AIDS
 The immune system is responsible for
protecting us from HIV and other infectious
agents; the more we learn about this
system, the more opportunities we have to
improve our health.
 How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main
menu.

 Should the federal government offer

incentives to companies to discount the
drugs for developing countries?
 a. Yes, drug companies have a responsibility to
world health, not just their bottom line.
 b. No, if drug companies must provide subsidies,
they won't be able to afford to develop new
drugs.
 Section 1

Overview of Body
Defenses
 Overview of Body Defenses
 We are born with some general defenses
and acquire other, specific ones.
 We have many defenses to protect us from
pathogens—those viruses, bacteria, fungi,
protozoa, and parasitic worms that cause
disease.
• Antigens on these pathogens identify them as
nonself.
• Antigens are usually proteins, lipids, or
oligosaccharides.
 Overview of Body Defenses
 Immunity is the body’s overall ability to resist
and combat anything that is nonself.
• Innate immunity encompasses preset responses
that activate rapidly and in a generalized way to
detected damage or invasion.
• Adaptive immunity responds to specific antigens on
specific pathogens; this response takes longer to
develop, but the body “remembers” what it sees and
responds quicker the next time the same pathogen is
seen.
Table 10.1, p.176
 Overview of Body Defenses
 Three lines of defense protect the body.
 Intact skin and mucous membranes are
important first-line physical barriers.
 Innate immunity forms the second line of
defense.
 Adaptive immunity forms the third line of
defense.
 Overview of Body Defenses
 White blood cells and their chemicals are
the defenders in immune responses.
 White blood cells are the core of the immune
system.
• Phagocytes release chemicals called cytokines to
further defense responses.
• Cytokines regulate different aspects of the immune
response; interleukins affect inflammation and
fever, interferons defend against viruses, and tumor
necrosis factor also affects inflammation and
stimulates tumor cell death.
 Overview of Body Defenses
 Complement is a group of about 30 blood
proteins that can kill microbes or identify them
for phagocytes to destroy.
 White blood cells serve a variety of different
functions in the immune response:
• Neutrophils make up two-thirds of all white blood
cells and work at the site of inflammation or damage.
• Basophils and mast cells produce histamines in
response to antigens.
• Macrophages are the predominant phagocytes that
patrol the bloodstream.
 Overview of Body Defenses
• Eosinophils target pathogens that are too large for
the macrophages.
• Dendritic cells signal when antigens are present in
skin and body linings.
• B and T lymphocytes (B and T cells) function in
adaptive immunity.
• Natural killer cells (NK cells) are lymphocytes that
function in innate responses.
Table 10.2, p.177
neutrophil eosinophil

Fig. 10.1, p.177

basophil mast cell

Fig. 10.1, p.177

T lymphocyte B lymphocyte
(T cell) (B cell)

Fig. 10.1, p.177

 dendritic cell

macrophage Natural killer (NK) cell

Fig. 10.1, p.177
Animation: White Blood Cells

CLICK
TO PLAY
 Section 2

The Lymphatic System

 The Lymphatic System

 The lymphatic system has two key roles:

to work with the cardiovascular system to
cycle fluids back into the circulation; and to
circulate lymph from the spleen, lymph
nodes, and other lymphoid tissues
throughout the body.

Right Lymphatic Duct
Drains right upper portion of
the body
Thoracic Duct
Drains most of the body
Spleen
Major site of antibody
production; disposal site for old
red blood cells and foreign
debris; site of red blood cell
formation in the embryo
Bone Marrow
Marrow in some bones is
production site for infection-
fighting blood cells (as well as
red blood cells and platelets)
Tonsils
Defense against bacteria
and other foreign agents
Thymus
Site where certain white
blood cells acquire means
to chemically recognize
specific foreign invaders
Some of the
Lymph Vessels
Return excess interstitial
fluid and reclaimable
solutes to the blood
Some of the
Lymph Nodes
Filter bacteria and many
other agents of disease
from lymph
Fig. 10.2, p.178
Animation: Lymphoid Organs

CLICK
TO PLAY
 The Lymphatic System
 The lymph vascular system functions in
drainage, delivery, and disposal.
 The lymph vascular system consists of lymph
capillaries and other vessels linking it to the
cardiovascular system.
• Water and solutes that drain from the blood vessels
collect in the lymphatic vessels and are returned to
the blood via these vessels.
• The lymphatic vessels pick up absorbed fats and
deliver them to the blood.
• Lymphatic vessels also transport foreign material to
the lymph nodes for disposal.
 The Lymphatic System
 Lymph capillaries and vessels are structured
much like blood capillaries and veins.
blood lymph interstitial
flaplike “valve”
capillary bed capillary fluid
formed from
overlapping cells
at the tip of a
lymph capillary

a Lymph capillaries Fig. 10.3a, p.179

 The Lymphatic System
 Lymphoid organs and tissues are
specialized for body defense.
 Lymph nodes are located at intervals along
the lymph vessels; lymphocytes congregate in
these nodes, making them key battlefields in
fighting off pathogens.
 lymph trickles past
organized arrays of
lymphocytes within
the lymph node

valve (prevents
backflow)

b A lymph node, cross section

Fig. 10.3b, p.179

Animation: Human Lymphatic System

CLICK
TO PLAY
 The Lymphatic System
 The spleen filters blood and serves as a
holding station for large numbers of
lymphocytes.
 T cells are produced and become specialized
in the thymus.
 Section 3

Surface Barriers
 Surface Barriers
 The normal microorganisms living on your
skin help prevent the growth of unwanted
pathogens through competition.

 Some microorganisms, such as the

Lactobacillus species of the vaginal tract in
women, lower the pH of their surroundings
to prevent growth of other microbes.
Figure 10.4
 Surface Barriers
 The mucus coating your lungs contains
enzymes such as lysozyme that can attack
and destroy many bacteria; cilia can also
sweep out pathogens.
 Chemicals in tears, saliva,
and gastric fluid offer
similar protection.
 The natural low pH of urine, as well as its
flushing action, helps protect the urinary tract.
 Section 4

Innate Immunity
 Innate Immunity
 Once a pathogen enters the
body, macrophages engulf it
and release cytokines to
attract dendritic cells,
neutrophils, and more
macrophages.

Figure 10.5
 Innate Immunity
 Circulating complement proteins can detect
pathogens and become activated.
 Activated complement attracts phagocytes,
which can destroy the pathogens.
 Activated complement can also form
membrane attack complexes in the pathogen;
these are holes that cause the pathogen to
disintegrate.
one membrane
attack complex
(cutaway view)

lipid bilayer of
a pathogen

pore

Fig. 10.6, p.180

Animation: Membrane Attack Complexes

CLICK
TO PLAY
 Innate Immunity
 Activated complement and cytokines
stimulate inflammation, characterized by
redness, swelling, warmth, and pain.
 Tissue irritation causes mast cells to release
histamine and cytokines that cause the blood
vessels to dilate (tissue
redness and warmth)
and capillary walls to
become leaky (edema).

Figure 10.8
 Innate Immunity
 Plasma proteins and phagocytes leave the
blood vessels.
• Plasma proteins contain clotting agents that help wall
off the pathogen and promote repair of tissues.
• Macrophages release cytokines that tell the brain to
release prostaglandins, which in turn stimulates
fever production; moderate fevers inhibit pathogen
growth.
Animation: Inflammatory Response

CLICK
TO PLAY
a Bacteria invade a tissue and b Mast cells in tissue release histamine,
directly kill cells or release which then triggers arteriolar vasodilation
metabolic products that damage (hence redness and warmth) as well as
tissue. increased capillary permeability.

a c d
b

c Fluid and plasma d Plasma e Neutrophils, macrophages, and

proteins leak out of proteins attack other phagocytes engulf invaders
capillaries; localized bacteria. Clotting and debris. Activated
edema (tissue swelling) factors wall off complement attracts phagocytes
and pain result. inflamed area. and directly kills invaders.

Fig. 10.7, p.181

 Section 5

Overview of
Adaptive Defenses
 Overview of Adaptive Defenses
 Adaptive immunity has three key features.
 Adaptive immunity is the body’s third line of
defense and has three defining features:
• Adaptive immunity is specific; each B and T cell
only recognizes one antigen.
• Adaptive immunity is diverse; B and T cells
collectively can recognize at least a billion different
threats.
• Adaptive immunity has memory.
 Overview of Adaptive Defenses
 Recognition of an antigen results in rapid cell
division to produce huge numbers of identical B
and T cells that recognize the stimulating
antigen.
• Some of these new cells are effector cells that can
immediately destroy pathogens.
• Others are memory cells, held in reserve for future
battles against the same threat; memory cells are
what make you “immune” to various pathogens.
 Overview of Adaptive Defenses
 B cells and T cells become specialized to
attack antigens in different ways.
 Both B and T lymphocytes arise in stem cells in
the bone marrow.
• B cells continue to develop within bone marrow.
• T cells travel to the thymus to finish developing; T
cells divide into two populations—helper T cells and
cytotoxic (“killer”) T cells.
 When mature, B and T cells can be found in the
lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphoid
tissues where they remain “naive” until they
recognize antigen.
 Overview of
Adaptive Defenses
 B cells and T cells respond to pathogens in
different ways.
• B cells produce antibodies (proteins) and are
responsible for antibody-mediated
immunity.
• T cells directly attack invaders; their response is
called cell-mediated immunity.

Figure 10.9
Red blood Bone marrow
cells
Platelets
Monocytes, Stem cells
others

Thymus

B cells T cells

Organs of lymphatic system

Foreign
invasion

B cells T cells

Antibody-mediated Cell-mediated
immune response immune response
Fig. 10.9, p.182
Animation: Immune Response

CLICK
TO PLAY
Antibody-Mediated Cell-Mediated
Immune Response Immune Response

antigen-presenting cells

inactive B cells
+
antigen
+ inactive helper T cells
complement

activated effector inactive

B cells helper T cells cytotoxic T cells
+
memory
helper T cells
effector B cells effector cytotoxic T cells
+ +
memory B cells memory cytotoxic cells

Fig. 10.10, p.183

 Overview of Adaptive Defenses
 Proteins called MHC markers label body
cells as self.
 All body cells have MHC markers (from Major
Histocompatibility Complex genes) to identify
them as “self.”
 T cells have TCRs (T Cell Receptors) that see
MHC in context with antigen and respond.
 Overview of Adaptive Defenses
 Antigen-presenting cells introduce antigens
to T cells and B cells.
 T cells and B cells can only “see” antigens that
have been processed by an antigen-
presenting cell (APC).
• Macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells can all
present antigen.
• The antigen is ingested and digested; then its
fragments are linked with MHC markers and
displayed on the cell’s surface as antigen-MHC
complexes.
 Overview of Adaptive Defenses
 Helper T cells see the antigen-MHC complex,
release cytokines, and trigger repeated rounds
of division to produce the large numbers of
activated B and T cells.
• Specialization of activated cells into effector or
memory cells also occurs.
• An effector B cell is called a plasma cell; it can flood
the bloodstream with antibodies.
Animation: Molecular Cues

CLICK
TO PLAY
Table 10.3, p.192
 Section 6

Antibody-Mediated
Immunity: Defending
Against Threats Outside
Cells
Antibody-Mediated Immunity: Defending
Against Threats Outside Cells
 Antibodies develop while B cells are in bone
marrow.
 An antibody has a Y-shaped protein structure;
antigens are bound by the two “arms” of the
antibody.
 No two B cells make antibodies that are alike;
this allows both diversity and specificity.
 B cells make many copies of their antibodies,
which are inserted in the plasma membrane,
arms sticking out and ready to bind antigen.
binding site for antigen binding site for antigen

Fig. 10.11a, p.184

 antigen on bacterial cell
(not to scale)

binding site on one kind

of antibody molecule
for a specific antigen

Fig. 10.11b, p. 184

Animation: Antibody Structure

CLICK
TO PLAY
Antibody-Mediated Immunity: Defending
Against Threats Outside Cells
 Antibodies target pathogens that are
outside cells.
 Prior to activation, B cells serve as antigen-
presenting cells.
• Antibodies on the B cell surface bind antigens,
internalize them, process them, and then display
antigen-MHC complexes.
• TCRs of a helper T cell see the antigen-MHC
complex and bind; binding causes the cells to
exchange signals.
• The T cell disengages, but the B cell is now
activated; when it recognizes unbound antigen, the B
cell will divide into plasma cells and memory cells.
Animation: Clonal Selection

CLICK
TO PLAY
Animation: Antibody-Mediated
Immune Response

CLICK
TO PLAY
 bacterium dendritic
cell

complement

inactive inactive
B cell T cell

cytokines
antigen-presenting cell

effector memory
B cell helper helper
T cell T cell

memory effector
B cell B cell

Fig. 10.12, p. 185

Antibody-Mediated Immunity: Defending
Against Threats Outside Cells
 Plasma cells can release up to 2,000 antibodies
per minute into the bloodstream; these
antibodies “flag” invaders for destruction by
phagocytes and complement.
 There are five classes of antibodies, each
with a particular function.
 Collectively, antibodies are referred to as
immunoglobulins, or Igs.
Antibody-Mediated Immunity: Defending
Against Threats Outside Cells
 The five different classes of Igs are the protein
products of gene shuffling that takes place as
the B cells mature:
• IgM antibodies cluster into a structure with 10
binding sites, making them more efficient at binding
clumped targets; IgM is the first antibody produced in
a response.
• IgA antibodies are present in secretions of exocrine
glands (tears, saliva, breast milk) and in the mucus
of the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
Antibody-Mediated Immunity: Defending
Against Threats Outside Cells
• IgG antibodies neutralize toxins, turn on
complement, are long lasting, can cross the
placenta, and are found in mother’s milk.
• IgD is the most common antibody bound to naive B
cells; it may help activate T cells.
• IgE antibodies are involved in allergic reactions; they
bind to basophils and mast cells where they act as
traps for antigen, causing the release of histamine.
IgG, IgD, and IgE IgA IgM

In-text Fig., p.184

Animation: Generating Antibody Diversity

CLICK
TO PLAY
 Video: Germs in Pakistan

CLICK
TO PLAY

 From ABC News, Human Biology in the Headlines, 2006 DVD.

 Section 7

Cell-Mediated
Responses—Defending
Against Threats Inside
Cells
 Cell-Mediated Responses – Defending
Against Threats Inside Cells
 Cell-mediated responses fight those
pathogens (viruses, bacteria, and some
fungi and protozoans) that can enter cells to
avoid antibody defenses; cell-mediated
responses also fight abnormal body cells
such as cancer cells.
 APCs present antigen to T cells, similar to
their role in antibody-mediated immunity.
Cell-Mediated Responses – Defending
Against Threats Inside Cells
 Helper T cells can be stimulated this way to
divide into effector and memory cells.
 Effector helper T cells or APCs directly can
stimulate cytotoxic T cells to divide.
• Cytotoxic T cells rapidly multiply and release
molecules that can “touch-kill” infected and abnormal
body cells.
• Cytotoxic T cells also secrete chemicals that
stimulate apoptosis—the programmed cell death of
the infected cell.
cytotoxic T
cell

tumor cell

Fig. 10.14, p.187

Animation: Cell-Mediated
Immune Response

CLICK
TO PLAY
Video: Cell-Mediated Response Overview

CLICK
TO PLAY
 dendritic
cell virus particle
(red) infecting
a body cell
a (yellow)

inactive inactive
b cytotoxic
T cell
helper
T cell
c

antigen-presenting
cell

activated cytokines effector memory

d cytotoxic helper helper
T cell T cell T cell

memory effector effector

cytotoxic cytotoxic cytotoxic
T cell T cell T cell

Fig. 10.13, p. 186

 dendritic
cell virus particle
( red) infecting
a body cell
a ( yellow)

inactive inactive
cytotoxic helper
b T cell T cell c

antigen-presenting
cell
activated effector memory
d cytotoxic
T cell
helper helper
T cell
T cell

memory effector effector

cytotoxic cytotoxic cytotoxic
T cell T cell T cell

Stepped Art
Fig. 10.13, p. 186
 Cell-Mediated Responses – Defending
Against Threats Inside Cells
 Helper T cells can also stimulate NK cells; they
will attack any cell that has too few or altered
MHC, any cells that have been tagged by
antibodies, and cells showing “stress markers”
as indicators of infection or cancer.
 Cytotoxic T cells cause the body to reject
transplanted tissue.
 During organ transplants, donor tissues must
be matched to a recipient to ensure that the
MHC markers do not differ enough to stimulate
rejection by cytotoxic T cells.
Cell-Mediated Responses – Defending
Against Threats Inside Cells
• Donor and recipient usually must share at least 75%
of their MHC markers for the transplant to succeed;
close relatives make the best donors because of this.
• Recipients usually also take drugs to suppress the
immune system to prevent rejection; often they will
also take antibiotics to ward off potential infections.
 Tissues of the eye and testicles do not
stimulate rejection; instead, cells of these
tissues secrete signals that cause lymphocytes
to undergo apoptosis, thus preventing the
lymphocytes from attacking.
 Video: A Saving Graft

CLICK
TO PLAY

 From ABC News, Human Biology in the Headlines, 2006 DVD.

 Section 8

Immunological Memory
 Immunological Memory
 Memory cells form during the primary
(first) response to an antigen and remain
in the blood for years or decades.
 Secondary responses to the same
antigen are much faster; plasma cells and
effector T cells form sooner and in greater
numbers, preventing infection.
Fig. 10.20, p.194
 first exposure later exposure to
to antigen same antigen
Relative concentrations
of antibody

Response time (weeks)

Fig. 10.15b, p. 188

Animation: Immunological Memory

CLICK
TO PLAY
First exposure
to antigen inactive T or B cell
provokes
primary
immune
response.

effector cell memory cell

Later
exposure to
same antigen
provokes
secondary
immune
response.
effector cells memory cells

Fig. 10.15a, p. 188

 Section 9

Applications of
Immunology
 Applications of Immunology
 Immunization gives “borrowed” immunity.
 Immunization increases immunity against
specific diseases.
 In active immunization, a
vaccine is given by injection or
is taken orally.
• The first dose of vaccine elicits a primary immune
response; a second dose (“booster”) elicits a
secondary, and more long-lasting, response.
• Vaccines are made from killed or very weak
pathogens, inactivated forms of toxins, or transgenic
(genetically engineered) viruses.
Figure 10.16
 Applications of Immunology
 Passive immunization involves injecting
antibodies into already infected individuals.
 Vaccines are not risk free.
p. 188
 Applications of Immunology
 Monoclonal antibodies are used in research
and medicine.
 Monoclonal antibodies
are antibodies made by
cells cloned from a single
antibody-producing B cell;
they are generally produced using genetically
altered bacteria or sometimes plants.
 Monoclonal antibodies are being used
commercially in home pregnancy tests,
screening for prostate cancer, and other uses.
Figure 10.17
 Applications of Immunology
 Immunotherapies reinforce defenses.
 Immunotherapy alters the body’s own immune
mechanisms to enhance defense against
infections and cancer.
• Cytokines can be used to activate B and T cells to
fight cancer.
• Monoclonal antibodies can be used to bind to
proteins on cancer cells to draw NK cells to the
tumor.
 Applications of Immunology
• Other monoclonal antibodies are bound to toxins to
make immunotoxins; these substances bind to
cancer cells, enter them, and prevent growth.
• Gamma interferon, produced by T cells, stimulates
NK cells and boosts activity of macrophages; it is
currently being used to treat hepatitis C.
• Beta interferon is being used to treat multiple
sclerosis.
 Immunotherapies, as with vaccines, do not
come without risks.
 Video: Polio Scare

CLICK
TO PLAY

 From ABC News, Biology in the Headlines, 2005 DVD.

 Section 10

Disorders of the Immune

System
 Disorders of the Immune System
 In allergies, harmless substances provoke
an immune attack.
 An allergy is an immune
response to a normally
harmless substance
called an allergen.
• Allergens include: pollen, some foods and drugs,
dust mites, fungal spores, insect venom, and certain
ingredients in cosmetics.
• Allergens trigger mild to severe inflammation of
various tissues.
• A variety of causes, from genetic to emotional, lead
to allergies. Figure 10.18a
 Disorders of the Immune System
 Exposure to an allergen triggers production of
IgE antibodies, which cause the release of
histamines and prostaglandins from mast cells.
• Histamines and prostaglandins fuel inflammation.
• Hay fever manifests as stuffed sinuses, a drippy
nose, and sneezing.
 In a few individuals, explosive inflammatory
responses trigger life-threatening anaphylactic
shock in which air passages constrict and fluid
rushes out of the capillaries.
 Disorders of the Immune System
• Food allergies, such as peanut allergies, and wasp
and bee venom allergies, can trigger anaphylactic
shock.
• Rapid injections of the hormone epinephrine can
prevent shock and save lives.
 Antihistamines are often used to relieve the
short-term symptoms of allergies;
desensitization can be used to “train” the body
not to see allergens.
 allergen (antigen)
enters the body

IgE
antibodies
histamine
granules

B cell
mitochondrion nucleus
Allergen binds B
cell receptors; the mast cell
sensitized B cell now
processes the antigen Effector B cells
and, with the help of T (plasma cells) IgE antibodies attach to
cells (not shown), produce and secrete mast cells in tissues,
proceeds through the IgE antibodies to the which have granules
steps leading to cell allergen containing histamine
proliferation molecules

Fig. 10.18b, p. 190

 SECONDARY RESPONSE
(allergy)

histamine
granules

After the first exposure, when

the allergen enters the body it
binds with IgE antibodies on
mast cells; binding stimulates
the mast cell to release
histamine and other
substances
Fig. 10.18b, p. 190
 Disorders of the Immune System
 Autoimmune disorders attack “self.”
 In an autoimmune response, lymphocytes
turn against the body’s own cells.
 Examples of autoimmune diseases include the
following:
• Rheumatoid arthritis, an inflammation of the joints
caused by immune attack against collagen and
antibodies in the joints;
inflammation, complement
and faulty repair mechanisms
contribute to the damage.
Figure 10.19
 Disorders of the Immune System
• Type 1 diabetes, a type of diabetes mellitus,
caused when the immune system attacks and
destroys the insulin-secreting cells of the pancreas,
impairing glucose absorption from the blood.
• Systemic lupus erythematosus, where patients
develop antibodies to their own DNA and other “self”
components.
 Autoimmune diseases tend to be more frequent
in women than in men.
 Disorders of the Immune System
 Immune responses can be deficient.
 Immunodeficiency is used to describe the
state where a person’s immune system is
weakened or lacking; under these conditions
the body is vulnerable and infections that would
normally not be serious become life
threatening.
 Disorders of the Immune System
 In severe combined immune deficiency
(SCID) both B and T cells are in low numbers;
infants born with SCID usually die early in life.
 In acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS), the HIV virus attacks the body’s
macrophages and helper T cells, crippling the
immune response.