STRESS ANALYSIS

T. N. GOPINATH
 The objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure
safety against failure of the Piping System by verifying the
structural integrity against the loading conditions, both
external and internal, expected to occur during the lifetime
of the system in the plant. This is to be undertaken with the
most economic considerations.
1.1 Objectives of stress Analysis are to:

1.1.1 Ensure that the stresses in the piping

components in the system are within
the allowable limits.
1.1.2    Solve dynamic problems developed
due to mechanical vibration, acoustic
vibration, fluid hammer, pulsation,
relief valves etc.
1.1.3    Solve the problems associated due to
higher or lower operating temperature
such as:
a) Displacement Stress range
b) Nozzle loadings on the
connected equipments
c) Pipe displacements
d) Loads and moments on the
supporting structures.
1.3 Hence the steps involved in the stress
analysis can be listed as . .

1.3.1.        Identify the potential loads that the

piping system would encounter during
the life of the plant.
1.3.2.        Relate each of these loads to the
stresses and strains developed.
1.3.3.        Get the cumulative effect of the
potential loads in the system.
1.3.4.        Decide the allowable limits.The system
can withstand without failure.
1.3.5.        After the system is designed, to ensure
that the stresses are within the safe
limits.
1.4 Types of loads

All the American code for Pressure Piping

classify the loads mainly into three types . .

1.4.1. Sustained Loads: Those due to

forces present during normal
operation

1.4.2.   Occasional Loads: Those present

during rare intervals of operations

1.4.3.   Displacement Loads: Those due to

displacement of pipe
1.5 Conditions of Acceptability of Piping System

The Piping Engineer has the following choices

to establish that the required flexibility has been
provided in the piping layout.
1.5.1 As per clause 119.7.1/319.4.1 of the code
ASME B 31.1/B 31.3, no formal analysis is
required in systems which
i) are duplicates of successfully
operating installations or
replacements.
ii) can readily be judged adequate
by comparison with previously
analyzed systems.
iii) satisfy equation specified in
clause 119.7.1(A3)/ 319.4.1 (c)
 1.5.2        Analyzing the layout by an approximate
method.

    Approximate method shall be applied

only if they are used for the range of
configuration for which adequate
accuracy has been demonstrated.

1.5.3       Carrying out a comprehensive analysis.

i)            Analytical
ii)           Model test
iii)          Chart method
Blower fig.

700 
55304

BLOWER
The Piping Specification nominates the code to be
used for various aspects in the Piping System.

Every such code will contain recommendations

and mandatory requirements on the following aspects:

i) Minimum flexibility requirements for

thermal expansion
ii) Allowable stresses for various piping
materials
iii)       Reinforcement requirements of branch
connections
iv)       Support criteria
2.2  Magnitude Of Thermal Load

L =  . T. L …. (1)
L =  . L …. (2)
 The strain developed in the pipe, , is then calculated
as  = L / L= 

Internal stress developed due to this strain,

f = E (Hooke’s Law)
= E

The force required to compress back is

P = Af = AE
 

  
 where,

A = Area of cross section of pipe,In2 (mm2)

 
E = Modulus of elasticity of material, psi (Kpa)

P = Compressive force on pipe, lbs (N)

f = Stress developed, psi (Kpa)

L = Axial compression of pipe, In (mm)

L = length of pipe, In (mm)

 To evaluate the magnitude of such a force, let us
consider Carbon Steel pipe of 600 mm
outside
diameter with 10 mm thickness, operating at a
temperature of 3000C.
 
Referring to ASME B 31.3, Table C6,
E = 26.85 Msi (1.888 x 104 kg/mm2 )
 
Referring to Table C1
 = 3.625 x l0-3 mm/mm
 
Area of the pipe
A = Pi / 4 [(600)2 - (580)2] = 18535.4 mm2
 
P = 18535.4 x 1.888 x 104 x 3.625 x l0-3
= 12,68,563 kg = 1269 tons
STRESS

CYCLE
TIME
 E L A S T IC
L IM IT E D

S TR E S S

S T R A IN
24000 psi
C'
b2 b'
b1
b
b3 Expansion
6000 psi

System self sprung

a
 Stress

2Sy

Sy

-Sy

-2Sy
TIME ELASTIC SHAKEDOWN (RELAXATION)

Fig. 2.9
 2.4 Allowable Stresses

The American piping codes covered under

ASME B 31 subscribe to the failure of the piping
system to the basis the ‘Maximum principal stress
theory’. The theory states that the yielding occurs
when the magnitude of any of the three mutually
perpendicular stresses exceeds the yield strength of the
material. Temperature and pressure are the significant
factors governing the stresses created in the piping
systems.
 There are other factors that influence the
stress as well. They are:

•    Wind load
•    Seismic load
•   Relief valve forces
•   Fluid hammer
•    Settlement
•  Equipment vibration
•  Weight of attachments
• Weight of contents
All these factors contribute to two distinct
forms of stresses.

The sustained stresses – Generated by

Pressure, dead weight of contents and attachments,
which can be expected to be present virtually at all
time of plant operation.

The self-limiting stresses – Generated by

thermal effects.
 The basic allowable material stress at the hot
(operating/design) temperature (Sh) is defined by the
code as minimum of
  As per the ASME B 31.1

• 1/4 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material at

operating temperature
i. 1/4 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material at
room temperature
ii. 5/8 of the yield strength of the material at operating
temperature (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steels)
iii. 5/8 of the yield strength of the material at room
temperature (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steel)
and
i. 100% of the average stress for a 0.01% creep rate per
1000 hrs.
 
As per ASME B 31.3

• 1/3 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material

at operating temperature.
• 1/3 of the ultimate tensile strength of the material
at room temperature.
• 2/3 of the yield strength of the material at
operating temperature (90% of the yield stress for
austenitic stainless steel)
• 2/3 of the yield strength of material at room
temperature (90 % of the yield stress for austenitic
stainless steel) 100% of the average stress for a
0.01% creep rate at 1000 hrs
• 67% of the average stress for rupture after
1,00,000 hrs 80% of the minimum stress for rupture
after 1,00,000 hrs.
 2.4.2     TIME DEPENDENT STRESSES

Time dependent allowable stress is

usually related to the “creep rupture strength” at
high temperature. At temperature above 1/3 of the
melting point, most metals will exhibit creep in
standard tensile test, if the load is kept constant
the specimen will continue to deform with time.
Under constant load, the rate of creep strain will
decrease initially to a steady state and later will
increase rapidly until it fails due to creep rupture.
 
 The code uses an allowable stress, which is
the smaller of time dependent, and time independent
allowable stress. The time dependent allowable stress
is the smallest of 67% of the average stress to cause
creep rupture in 1,00,000 hrs, 80% of the minimum
stress to cause rupture in 1,00,000 hrs or 100% of the
stress to give 0.01% of creep rate per hour (Ref.
2.4.1)
 The self limiting stress in piping system are
essentially cyclic and the initial hot stresses, if they are
of sufficient magnitude, will decrease with time because
of the plastic strains and will reappear as a stress of
reverse direction when the pipe cools. This phenomenon
forms the basic difference between the self-limiting
stresses and the sustained stresses.
 The degree of self-springing, as explained
earlier, will depend on the magnitude of the initial hot
stresses and the temperature, so that while the hot
stresses will gradually decrease with time, the sum of
hot and cold stresses will stay the same. This sum is
called the EXPANSION STRESS RANGE. This
leads us to the selection of an ALLOWABLE
EXPANSION STRESS RANGE.
 Self-springing occurs only when the system is
subjected to higher temperatures. For the expected strain
(expected expansion per unit length), if the modulus of
elasticity at this high temperature is used to back
calculate stress, the stress value will be lower than when
it is calculated using modulus of elasticity value at lower
temperature (cold condition). That is, stress value is
higher when material properties in cold condition are
used. This provides a built in safety in design. Hence
the stresses are calculated using the cold modulus of
elasticity. This is a very important point to note. Actual
stresses under hot condition would be less than the
calculated stresses.
 There are other failure modes that could
affect the piping system. They include buckling,
stress corrosion and brittle fracture. These topics are
not correctly considered in the piping code. The
effects of these must be considered by the Piping
Engineer while selecting the materials or restraining
the piping system.
 2.4.3        ALLOWABLE STRESS RANGE

The failure modes that the piping code addresses are

excessive plastic deformation or bursting; plastic instability
or incremental collapse due to cycling in the plastic range
and fatigue which may be developed in a system as its
temperature is raised from the lowest to the highest that it
will experience in service or when it is shut down. Each of
this failure, modes is caused by a different type of stress and
loading. However ‘Fatigue failure’ is recognized by the
code as the most likely mode of failure of the component
and place the limit on the maximum stress which may be
developed in a system as temperature is raised from lowest
to highest that will experience in service or when it is shut
down.
 For materials below the creep ranges, the allowable
stresses are 62.5% of the yield stress, so that a conservative
estimate of the limit of the bending stress at which plastic
flow starts at an elevated temperature is 1.6 (100/62.5)
times the allowable stress and by the same reasoning, 1.6 Sc
will be the stress at which flow would take place at the
minimum temperature. Hence the sum of these stresses
represents the MAXIMUM STRESS RANGE to which the
system would be subjected to, without the flow occurring in
either hot or cold condition.
Therefore,
Smax = 1.6 Sc + 1.6 Sh = 1.6 (Sc + Sh)
 But the American design codes ASME B 31.1 and B 31.3
limit the stress range to 78% of the yield stress which gives
a total stress range of

 S Allowable = 1.6 x 0.78 (Sc + Sh)

= 1.25 (Sc + Sh)
From this total stress range 1 Sh is reserved for the
longitudinal stresses developed due to loading such as
pressure, weight and other sustained loading, giving
the allowable stress range for flexibility as

S Allowable = 1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh

The above value does not consider the excessive

cyclic conditions.
 The code allows it by multiplying by a stress
range reduction factor. Accordingly,ASME B 31.1 in
clause 102.3.2(c) and ASME 31.3 in clause 302.3.5
specify the Allowable Expansion Stress Range as :
[The value of Sc and Sh are available in Table A1 of the
Code]
f = Stress range reduction factor for displacement
cycle conditions for the total number of cycles over the
expected life
 The factor ‘f’ has a value of 1.0 for situation where
total number of cycles is 7000 or less. This represents one
cycle per day for nearly 20 years, which is a common
design parameter. Further, if we look at endurance curve
for carbon steel and low alloy steel available in the ASME
Section VIII Division 2, Pressure Vessel Code, it can be
seen that at some point in the vicinity of 7000 cycles, the
Sc + Sh limitation intersects the fatigue curve.
The code gives the value of ‘f’ in the table 302.3.5 (B 31.3)
and 102.3.2 (c) (B 31.1) as follows:
 Stress Range Reduction Factor f
Cycles N Factor f

7,000 or less 1.0

over 7,000 to 14,000 0.9
over 14,000 to 22,000 0.8
over 22,000 to 45,000 0.7
over 45,000 to 1,00,000 0.6
over 1,00,000 to 2,00,000 0.5
over 2,00,000 to 7,00,000 0.4
over 7,00,000 to 20,00,000 0.3

This applies essentially to non corroded piping. Corrosion

can decrease the cycle life. Therefore, corrosion resistant
material should be considered where large number of
stress cycle is anticipated.
 A pipe supplies Dowtherm to the limpet of a
reactor, which is operated on a batch process with a 4
hour cycle every 24 hours. The Dowtherm
temperature is 315 0C (6000F) and pipe material is
ASTM A 106 Gr. B. Design life of plant considered
20 years.
A llowable stress at ambient S c = 20,000 psi
Allowable stress at Max. metal temp.
S h = 17,300 psi
24
Number of cycles =  365 x 20
4
= 43,800 (total)
The stress range reduction factor = 0.7
hence,
S A = f ( 1.25 S c + 0.25 S h )
= 0.7 ( 1.25  20,000 + 0.25  17,300)
2
= 20527 psi (1443 Kg./cm )
2.4.4      Effect of sustained loads on fatigue strength

If the alternating stress is plotted against the

cycle to failure, it can be seen that the mean stress has
an effect on the endurance strength of the material. As
the mean stress increases, the maximum permissible
absolute stress (Sa + Sm) increases, while the
permissible alternating stress decreases. The relation
between the allowable alternative stress and the
average stress follows the Soderberg line, which
correlates fairly well with test data of ductile
materials.
 Alternating Stress Axis
Design Limit

Sa from endurance curve for

completely alternating stress

Compressive SY
Tensile SY

Mean Stress Axis

The equation for the Soderberg line is

Sa (Allowed) = Sa(for R=1) x (1-Sm/SYield)
where, R = Smin / Smax
Sa = Smax - Smin / 2
Sm = Smax + Smin / 2
1. Centrifugal pumps - API 610
2. Positive displacement pumps - API 676
3. Centrifugal compressors - API 617/NEMA
SM 23
4. Reciprocating compressors - API 618
5. Steam turbines - NEMA SM 23
6. Air cooled heat exchangers - API 661
7. Shell and tube heat exchangers- Manf.Specific.
8. Fired heaters - Manf. Specific.
9. For other static equipment such as Reactors, vessels
and tanks interaction with the fabrication engineer is
required to establish that the local stress developed
due to nozzle loadings are within the acceptable
limits.
 Table 3.1: NOZZLE LOADING AS PER API 610
FORCE/MOMENT NORMAL SIZE OF NOZZLE FLANGE IN INCHES

  2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Each Top Nozzle                  
FX 160 240 320 560 850 1200 1500 1600 1900
FY 200 300 400 700 1100 1500 1800 2000 2300
FZ 130 200 260 460 700 1000 1200 1300 1500
FR 290 430 570 1010 1560 2200 2600 2900 3300
Each Side Nozzle                  
FX 160 240 320 560 850 1200 1500 1600 1900
FY 130 200 260 460 700 1000 1200 1300 1500
FZ 200 300 400 700 1100 1500 1800 2000 2300
FR 290 430 570 1010 1560 2200 2600 2900 3300
Each End Nozzle                  
FX 200 300 400 700 1100 1500 1800 2000 2300
FY 130 200 260 460 700 1000 1200 1300 1500
FZ 160 240 320 560 850 1200 1500 1600 1900
FR 290 430 570 1010 1560 2200 2600 2900 3300
Each Nozzle                  
MX 340 700 980 1700 2600 3700 4500 4700 5400
MY 260 530 740 1300 1900 2800 3400 3500 4000
MZ 170 350 500 870 1300 1800 2200 2300 2700
MR 460 950 1330 2310 3500 5000 6100 6300 7200

F is Force in pounds ; M is Moment in foot pounds ; R is the resultant ; X, Y, Z : Orientation of

Nozzle Loads. API 610 specifies that the pump casing should be designed to withstand double the
forces and moments as above. The piping configuration that produces loads and moments
outside the above range is also acceptable provided the conditions as specified in Appendix F of
the above code are satisfied. For direction of forces and moments see Fig. 3.1
3.2 Positive Displacement Pumps

The American Petroleum Institute Standard 676

specifies in clause 2.4.7 the limiting values for the
Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps with Alloy Steel
or Steel Castings at inlet and outlet nozzles as :

Fx = 75 D lbs Mx = 125 D ft.lbs

Fy = 75 D lbs My = 125 D ft lbs
Fz = 75 D lbs Mz = 125 D ft lbs

where D is the nominal diameter of nozzle in inches.

3.3 Centrifugal Compressors

Clause 2.5.1 of API 617 “Centrifugal Compressors

for General Refinery Service” specifies that the
compressors shall be designed to withstand external
forces and moments on each nozzle at least 1.85 times
the value calculated in accordance with NEMA - SM
23.
The allowable forces and moments are calculated as
per NEMA-SM 23 as below.
The forces and moments acting on compressor(s) due
to the inlet pipe and discharge pipe connections are :
• The total resultant force and total resultant moment
imposed on the Compressor at any connection must
not exceed the following :
925 D - M
3F + M  925D or F
3
F = Resultant force (lbs.) including pressure
forces where unrestrain ed expansion
joints are used at the connection - except
on vertica l connection s covered under 3.
M = Resultant Moment (ft. lbs.)
D = Pipe size of the connection (IPS) in
inches upto eight (8) inches in diameter.
For sizes greater th an this, use a value of D
16 + IPS
equal to inches.
3
2. The combined resultant of the forces and
moments of the inlet side and discharge connections
resolved at the centre line of the discharge connection
must not exceed the following two conditions.

These resultants must not exceed

462Dc Mc
Fc 
2
F c = Combined resultant of inlet side and
discharge forces in pounds.
M c = Combined resultant of inlet side and
discharge moments resulting from
forces in ft lbs.
D c = Diameter (in inches) of a circular
opening equal to the total area of
inlet side and discharge opening upto
a value of nine (9) inches
in diameter. For values beyond this use
value of
(18 + Equivalent Diameter)
D c = inches
3
The components of these resultants shall not exceed

Fy = 231 Dc My = 231 Dc

Fz = 185 Dc Mz = 231 Dc
Fx = 92.5 Dc Mx = 462 Dc
where,
Fy = Vertical component of Fc
Fz = Horizontal components of Fc
at right angles to compressor shaft
Fx = Horizontal component of Fc
Parallel to compressor shaft
Mx = Component of Mc in a vertical plane at
right angles to compressor shaft
My = Component of Mc in a horizontal plane
Mz = Component of Mc in a vertical
 3. For installation of compressors with vertical
connections with unrestrained expansion joints, an
additional amount of force caused by pressure loading
is allowed. (The additional force referred to is
perpendicular to the face of the flange and is deemed to
act at its center). For this type of application, calculate
the vertical force component of the vertical connection
excluding pressure loading. Compare with value of 1/5
of the pressure loading. Use the larger of these two
vertical force components on connections in making
calculations outlined in (1) and (2).The force caused by
the pressure loading on the vertical connection is
allowed in addition to the values established in the
above up to a maximum value of vertical force (in
pounds) on the connection (including pressure loading)
of 15½ times the connection area in square inches.
4. These values of allowable forces and moments
pertain to the compressor structure only.

They do not pertain to the forces and moments in the

connecting piping flanges and flange bolting which
should not exceed the allowable stress as defined by
applicable codes and explanatory notes.

Forces on inlet connections are to be transferred along

with moments to discharge connection to analyze the
compressor for resultant forces and moments. But, the
transfer of force will generate additional transfer
moments, which are added to the total of moments to
give resultant moments.
 3124

2 8 "X 2 0 "

1 6 0 6

1 5 1 6
ECC RED
M F.E L .1 3 7 7 7

1 0 2 9
1 7 7 1

2 7 8 0
6 1 5 0
4 5 4 9
0 .1 4 1
0 .0 3 7

1 2 6 4
2 2 5 0

1 6 2 6
3 2 5 0
1 6 0 6

D E S IG N C O N D I T I O N S
S U C T I O N P IP I N G : D E S I G N P R E S S U R E 0 K G / C M 2 G , D E S IG N T E M P : 3 5 0 C
1 .O C : A S T M A 1 0 6 G .B , T H K : S C H : S T D
D IS C H P IP I N G : D E S IG N P R E S S U R E 2 3 . C K G / C M 2 G , D E S IG N T E M P : 5 5 O C
M O C : A S T M A IO 6 - B , T H K : S C H : S T D ( 0 . 3 7 5 ")
N O T E : 1 . N O C O L D S P R IN G S H A L L B E A P P L I E D
2 . F R IC T IO N E F F E C T A T S U P P O R T T O B E I G N O R E D
¢ v- x

3 . IN S T A L L A T I O N T E M P - 3 0 0 C
ALLOWABLE FORCES AND MOMENTS ON
COMPRESSOR

DESIGN CONDITION
Installation Temperature : 300C
Suction Temperature : 350C
Discharge Temperature : 550C

Inlet Piping
Fx = -11 kg
Fy = 266 kg
Fz = 52 kg
Mx = 292 kg.m
My = 104 kg.m
Mz = 94 kg.m
 +Fy

+My

+Mx

Fr  Fx2  Fy2  Fz2

 (11)2  (266)2  522  271.26kg  597Ibs. +Fz +Mz +Fx

Mr  2922 1042  942  323.91kgM  2337ftIbs.

925D  M
Fall
3
16 IPS 16 20
Where D   12"
3 3
925x12 2337
Fall  2921Ibs
3
 Fr
Hence resultant force at compressor inlet is within safe limits
 Discharge Piping
Fx = -34 kg
Fy = 274 kg
Fz = 133 kg
Mx = 55 kg.m
My = 184 kg.m
Mz = 50 kg.m

Fr  Fx 2  Fy 2  Fz 2
 ( 34 ) 2  274 2  133 2  306 .47 kg  674 Ibs.

Mr  55 2  182 2  50 2  196 .56 kgM  1419 ftIbs .

925 D  M
Fall 
3
16  IPS 16  20
Where D    12"
3 3
925 x12  1419
 Fall   3227 Ibs
3
 Fr

Hence resultant force at compressor Discharge is within safe limits

 D
5 9 1
S U C T IO N
S

C O M P R E S S O R D IS C H A R G E
D E T A IL S
D 1 6 2 6

S S U C T IO N

4 3 2

2 7 4 K G
1626

D S 2 6 6 K G

S (5 9 1 ,-1 6 2 6 ,-4 3 2 )

+ Y

+ X
+ Z
Force at the inlet connection are to be transferred along
with moments to discharge side to analyze for resultant
forces and moments. But the transfer of forced will give
additional transfer moments which are added to the total
to give resultant moments.
Moment vector at any point is given by the cross
product of the distance vector with force vector
ie. Mr = D x F
Here D = 0.591 i - 1.626 j - 0.432 k
F = -11 i - 266 j + 52 k
= i j k
0.591 -1.626 -0.432
-11 +266 +52
= 30.36 i + 25.98 j + 139.32 k
 Hence,
MTX = 30.36 KG.M
MTY = 25.98 KG.M
MTZ = 139.32 KG.M

TOTAL FORCE AND MOMENTS AT

COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE

CASE Fx(KG) Fy(KG) Fz(KG) Mx(KG.M) My(KG.M) Mz(KG.M)

Suction -11 266 52 292 104 94
Disch -34 274 133 133 182 50
Transfer - - - 120 26 139
TOTAL -45 540 185 455 312 283
Fc  Fx 2
 Fy 2
 Fz 2

 45 2  540 2
 185 2
 572 . 58 KG
 1260 Ibs
Mc  Mx 2
 My 2
 Mz 2

 455 2  312 2  283 2  620 . 05 KG . M

 4474 ftIbs
462 DC  Mc
Fc All 
2
18  Deq
where Dc 
3
Deq = Equivalent DIA. Of a circular opening equal
to total area of inlet and discharge
InletPipe  20" SCH 20
 20"0D x 0.375"THK

Area x19.25
2

4 Fc is marginally higher than

 291.04 IH 2 Fc all.
OutletPipe  20" SCH 20
Area  291.04in
2 Approx.1.2%
Total Area  582.08in
2
Hence Forces (Total) on

 Deq2  582.08in2 compressor can be accepted
4
582.08 x 4
Deq 

 27.22in
18 27.22
Dc   15.07in
3
462Dc  Mc
Fcall 
2
462x15.07 4474

2
1244.17 Ibs
 Individual component check
Allowable Remarks
Fy = 540 kg 231DC = 1582 kg Ok
Fx = 185 kg 92.5DC = 634 kg Ok
Fz = -45 kg 185 DC = 1267 kg Ok
My = 312 kgm 231 DC = 482 kg.m Ok
Mx = 283 kgm 462 DC = 964 kg.m Ok
Mz = 455 kgm 231 DC = 482 kg.m Ok
Conclusion
The routing is acceptable as the values of
forces and moments are within limits except the combined
resultant force which is only marginally higher.
 3.4              Steam Turbines

NEMA – SM 23 requires that the forces and

moments acting on steam turbines due to the steam inlet,
extraction, and exhaust connections should be evaluated
by simple set of force/moment calculation similar to
centrifugal compressors. These computations shall be
done as below.
 
1. The total resultant force and total resultant moment
imposed on the turbine at any connection should not
exceed the values calculated as per the following
equation.
 
  
500D - M
3 F + M  500 D or F  3
where,

F = Resultant force (lbs) including pressure forces

where unrestrained expansion joints are used at the
connection except on vertical exhausts. Full vacuum
load is allowed on vertical down exhaust flanges.
 
F = F x 2 + F y 2 + Fz 2
M= Mx2 + My2 + Mz2

D = Nominal pipe size of the connection in inches up to

8 inches in diameter.
 
 
For sizes greater than this, use a value of
 
(16 + IPS) Inches
D (in inches) =
3
  1.     The combined resultants of the forces and moments
of the inlet, extraction, and exhaust connections, resolved
at the centerline of the exhaust connection should not
exceed the following two conditions.
 
These resultants shall not exceed :
 
250 Dc - Mc
Fc =
2
 
 where,

Fc = Combined resultant of inlet, extraction, and

exhaust forces, in lbs.
Mc = Combined resultant of inlet, extraction, and
exhaust moments, and moments resulting from
forces, in ft lbs.
Dc = Diameter (in inches) of a circular opening equal
to the total areas of the inlet, extraction, and
exhaust openings up to a value of nine inches in
diameter.
  For values beyond this, use a value of Dc (in inches)
equal to :
  (18 + Equivalent diameter in inches)

3
 The components of these resultants should not
exceed :
  Fx = 50 Dc Mx = 250 Dc
Fy = 125Dc My = 125 Dc
Fz = 100 Dc Mz = 125 Dc
  The components are as follows :
  Fx = Horizontal components of Fc parallel to the
turbine shaft.
Fy = Vertical component of Fc
Fz = Horizontal component of Fc at right angles
to the turbine shaft.
Mx = Component of Mc around the horizontal
axis parallel to the turbine shaft
My = Component of Mc around the vertical axis
Mz = Component of Mc around the horizontal
axis at right angles to the turbine shaft.
3. For installation of turbines with a vertical exhaust and an
unrestrained expansion joint at the exhaust, an additional
amount of force caused by pressure loading is allowed. (This
additional force is perpendicular to the face of the exhaust
flange and is deemed to act at its centre), For this type of
application, calculate the vertical force component on the
exhaust connection excluding pressure loading. Compare this
with one sixth of the pressure loading on the exhaust.
 Use the larger of these two numbers for
vertical force component on the exhaust connection in
making calculations outlined in 1 and The force caused
by the pressure loading on the exhaust is allowed in
addition to the values established by the foregoing up to
a maximum value of vertical force in pounds on the
exhaust connection (including pressure loading) of 15 ½
times the exhaust area in square inches.

4. These values of allowable force and moment pertain

to the turbine structure only. They do not pertain to the
forces and moments in the connecting piping, flange,
and flange bolting, which should not exceed the
allowable stress as defined by applicable codes and
explanatory notes.
3.6 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers

The American Petroleum Institute Standard 661

for “Air Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery
Services” covers the allowable loads on the vertical,
collinear nozzles found in most single multibundled air-
cooled heat Exchangers. API 661 has the following two
requirements.
 
3.6.1 Each nozzle in corroded condition shall be
capable of withstanding the following moments and
forces.
Nozzle size Forces in lbs Moments in ft lbs  

NB In Fx Fy Fz Mx My Mz

1 100 150 100 50 70 50

2 150 200 150 70 120 70

3 150 250 300 200 300 200

4 500 400 500 400 600 400

6 750 750 600 800 1500 1050

8 1200 2000 950 1100 3000 1500

10 1500 2000 1000 1250 3000 2000

12 2000 2000 1250 1500 3000 2500

14 2500 2500 1500 1750 3500 3000

Table 3.2: Nozzle loading as per API 661

3.7 Shell & Tube Type Heat Exchangers

The designer has to set the limiting values or

to check the vessel connections for the nozzle loading
imposed by the connected piping.The rough guide
generally followed is :-

Resultant Maximum Force 200 lb./in NB of nozzle

Bending Moment Equivalent to bending stress in
standard schedule pipe between 4000 to 5000lbs./in2
3.8 Fired Heaters

The limiting values for forces and moments

should be laid down by the manufacturer.
Restrictions are applied on nozzle rotations also in
this case to take care of the clearances between the
tube and refractory lining. The thumb rule used is :

Forces = 200 to 300 lb/in. nominal bore of nozzle

Moments - Equivalent to Sh/4

Nozzle Rotation - From 1/20 to 10

Table 3.3: Recommended Nozzle loading in Static Equipment

Nozzle Axial force Shear force each Bending moment each Twisting moment
size NB   direction direction  
inch lbs Lbs. lbs. ft-lbs

3 900 400 1300 1300

4 1100 500 2000 2000

6 1650 750 4300 4300

8 2200 1000 8000 8000

10 2750 1250 14500 12300

12 3300 1500 21000 17500

14 3850 1750 25000 21000

16 4400 2000 29000 27000

18 4950 2250 32500 32500

20 5500 2500 36000 36000

24 6600 3000 44000 44000

The local stress intensity at the nozzle connection due
to attachment of piping can be computed using the
welding research council bulletin 107 setting the
limitations as.
 

3.9.1 The local sustained stress intensity at the nozzle

connection should be less than 0.5 sm
 
3.9.2    The sum of local sustained stress intensity and
the local expansion stress intensity at the nozzle
connection must be less than 2 sm
DESIGN CASES TO BE CONSIDERED

1. NORMAL OPERATION
2. STEAM OUT
3. START-UP
4. CRASH SHUT-DOWN
5. ANY OTHER NEAR GOVERNING
CONDITIONS
4.0      Data required for flexibility calculations
 
The following data will be required for the
flexibility calculations if it is carried out manually or
by the use of software. It is therefore prudent to have
this ready before starting.
The direction of coordinates are fixed as below:
1. Code of Practice
2. Basic Material of Construction of Pipe
3. Ambient / Installation temperature
4. Number of Thermal Cases
5. Flexibility Temperature (See Note)
6. Design Pressure
7. Outside diameter of Pipe
8. Type of construction of pipe
9. Nominal Thickness of Pipe
10. Manufacturing tolerance
11. Corrosion allowance
12. Pipe Weight
13. Insulation Weight
14. Specific Gravity of Contents
15. Young’s Modulus at Ambient/Installation Temperature
16. Young’s Modulus at Flexibility Temperature
17. Thermal Expansion at Flexibility Temperature
18. Allowable stress at Ambient/ Installation temperature
19. Allowable stress at flexibility temperature
20. Bend radius and type of bend
21. Branch connection type
22. Weight of attachments - Valves and Specialties
23. Terminal movements with directions
CRITERIA

• No specific thumb rule for the selection of pipelines

for flexibility analysis. The following guide lines can
be considered.
• C. S Lines  2”(50) NB having temperature
difference of 100°C for hot & 60°C for cold.
• C S Lines  8”(200) NB and S. S. lines  2”(50) NB
having temperature difference  50°C.
• All lines of strain sensitive equipment
• 3.1>2” (50)NB < 8”(200)NB - 50°C difference
• 3.2>10” (250)NB
•SE as close as possible to SA.
•No safety factor. On SA & acceptable nozzle loading.
•Weightage
•Accepted Flex. Analysis – 65%
•Wt. Analysis – 15%
•Support selection – 5%
•Support Drawings/Vendor drawing Approvals – 15%
5.1 Check As Per Clause 119.7.1/ 319.4.1 of the Code

Clause 119.7.1(A3)/ 319.4.1(c) specifies that no

formal analysis is required in systems which are of
uniform size, have no more than two points of fixation,
no intermediate restraints and fall within the empirical
equation.
DY
 K1
( L U )
2

where,
D = The outside diameter of pipe in inch (or mm)
Y = Resultant of total displacement strains in inch
(or mm) to be absorbed by the Piping system.
L = Developed length between the anchors in ft.or (m)
U = Anchor distance, straight line between anchors in
ft. or(m)
K1= 0.03 for USCS units.
= 208.3 for SI units.
 For example, consider the following pipe routing

Pipe - 6" (150 mm NB) Sch. 40

carbon steel to ASTM A106
Gr.
Design Temperature - 400 F (2040C)
Step 1:

2
2 2
U= x +y +z
 35 2  30 2  45 2 64.42'

To establish the anchor to anchor distance U

Total length in X direction = 35’

Total length in Y direction = 30’

Total length in Z direction = 25’ +

20’
= 45’
Step 2
To determine value of L.
L = x  y + z = 35 + 30 + 45 = 110 ft.

Step 3
To calculate resultant total displacement Y
From Appendix C, ASME B 31.3
Linear Expansion between 70F and 400F.
 
e  2.7" / 100 ft.
2.7  35
Δx   0.945"
100
2.7  30
Δy   0.810"
100
2.7  45
Δz   1.215"
100
Y  Δx 2
 Δy 2
 Δz 2

 0.945 2
 0.810 2
 1.215 2

 1.739"
 Step 4

DY
K
L  U 2
6.625  1.739

110  64.42 2
 0.0055
 0.03
since K < K 1  the configurat ion is safe
Please note that no general proof can be offered that
this equation will yield accurate and conservative
results. It is not applicable to systems used under
severe cyclic conditions. There is no assurance that
the terminal reactions will be acceptably low, even if
the system satisfies the above equation.
As per Elastic Theory,
If L is length of BC in ft. ( l = 12 L)
144 PL 3
δ=
EI
Hence,
EI δ
P  above
144 L 3
Maximum bending moment at B or C   P L/2
 M ft. lbs.
M Y 12
Maximum bending stress f  lbs/ in 2

I
OD of pipe
Y
2
12 M Y
f 
I
PL D
 12 
I 2 2
EI δ
Substituti ng P 
144 L 3
12 EI δ  L  D
f  
I 144 L 3 2 2
DE δ
i.e. f 
48 L 2
DE δ
L 
48 f
e.g. :- In the previous layout if we restrict the stress at
16,000 psi and consider modulus of elasticity of carbon
steel as 29.5 x 106 psi and assume the pipe size as 6" NB
(6.625" OD)

Expansion of piping between T1 and T2,

δ  0 .87" (22 mm)
DE δ
L
48f
6.625  29500000  0 . 87

16000  48
 14 .88 ft.(4.54 m)

This indicates that the length BC should not be less

than 6.5 m.
In Fig.5.5 if the vessels are arranged in such a way
that AB and BC are equal and 10 M each, then the
stress developed can be calculated as;
 
l = AB = BC = 10 m = 394 inches
E = 29.5 x 106 lbs/ in2
R = 6.625/2 inches
 = 1.73/2 inches

6 x 29.5 x l06 x 6.625 x 1.73

SE =
(394)2 x 2 x 2
= 3267 psi
We can also calculate the stress developed in such a
system of known dimensions of leg BC by the same
method.
  Pl 3 / 12 EI
hence , P  12 EI  / l
3

M  PI / 2  12 EI  / l 2
3

F  M / Z  6 EI  / l 2 Z
R  I/Z
Z  I/R
Solving for f(S E )  6 ER  / l
2

Where; R = Outer radius of pipe, inches

I = Moment of inertia of cross section, in4
E = Modulus of elasticity,lbs/in2
l = Length, inches
Quick Check Method

Min. h  0.0025D LT ft
2

Min L = 400(h) 2

ft.
DT
o

Where ;
Do = Outside diameter in inch. (to nearest ½”)
T = Temp. difference °F
(Design Temp. – Instln. Temp.)
Check previous Layout

D  6 . 625 "  7 "

o

L  50 '
T  350  70  280
h  0 .0025 x 7 x 50 x 280
 15 . 7 '
5.3 Piping Elements - Their Individual Effects

STRAIGHT PIPE : FLEXIBILITY IN TORSION

If a bending moment M is applied to the end of a straight

piece of pipe, it behaves as a uniform beam and exhibits
change of slope from end to end, as given by the
expression.
  ML / EI
Where,
  Angle, radians
M = Bending Moment, in lbs (mm - N)
E = Young’s Modulus, lbs / in2 (Kpa)
I = Moment of Inertia, mm4
L = Length, inches (mm)

Fig. 5.8
 
If the same pipe is subjected to a constant twisting
moment, the rotation of one end relative to the other
end is given by :
TL
θ
GJ
where,
θ = Angleof twist,radians
T = Torsionmoment,in - lbs(mm- N)
L = Length,inches(mm)
G = Modulusof rigidity,lbs/in2(KPa)
J = Polarmomentof inertia,in4( mm4)
It can be shown that for metals
G = E / 2.6 and
J = 2 x I for circular cross section
Hence, TxL TL
 = = 1.3
E / 2.6 x 2I EI
 
This shows that flexibility can be provided in a layout
by permitting leg to bend or twist. This alone is a rare
means of obtaining flexibility. But influences the
engineer to select alternate route. Also it should be
ensured that this does not add unacceptable forces
and moments.
 b

a c

a c

1
b 1
c

b c

a d
 ML
=
EI
Fig. 5.10
Fig. 5.11
Fig. 5.12
Fig. 5.14 – Circumferential Stress in Pipe wall
 Fig. 5.15
Using this parameter code indicates that
The flexibility factor = k = 1.65/h
Inplane S.I.F.= ii = 0.9/h2/3
Outplane S.I.F.= Io= 0.75/h2/3
Flexibility Characteristic h = TR1 / (r2)2
T=Wall thickness, inches (mm)
R1=Mean Radius of bend, inches (mm)
r2=Mean radius of pipe wall, inches (mm)
When any problem is analyzed, the following
considerations are made:

a) The Flexibility Factor applies to bending in

any plane.

b) The stress intensification factor is greater for

"inplane" bending than for "outplane”
ending. ASME B 31.3 permits the use of
inplane SIF for any plane whereas B 31. 1
does not separate out these two.
 FLEXIBILITY FACTOR K AND STRESS
INTENSIFICATION FACTOR

DESCRIPTION FLEXIBILITY STRESS INTENSIFICATION FLEXIBILITY

FACTOR FACTOR CHARACTERISTIC
OUT PLANE IN-PLANE

Welding 1.65 0.75 0.9 TR 1

elbow   2/3  2/3 (r)2 2
Closely spaced 1.52 0.9 0.9 cot  Ts
mix bend  5/6  2/3  2/3 2 (r) 2 2

0.9 
1+cot 
Single mitre 1.52 0.9
bend  5/6  2/3  2/3 2 r2

Welding Tee 0.9 4.4 T

as per ANSI  2/3 3/4 i.o + 1/4 r2
B 16.9
Reinforced fab 0.9 3/4 i.o + 1/4 ( T + 1/2 t)r 5/2

Tee with pad  2/3 T 3/2 r2

or saddle

Unreinforced 0.9 3/4 i.o + 1/4 T

Fabricated  2/3 r2
Tee

Extruded
Welding Tee
0.9
 2/3
3/4 i.o + 1/4 (1 + rx
r22 ) rT
Welding in 0.9 3/4 i.o + 1/4 4.4 T
contour insert  2/3 r2

Branch welding 0.9 0.9 3.3 T

on fitting  2/3 2/3 r2
Mitre Bends
In case of Mitre Bends an equivalent bend radius is
used in the equation to calculate 'h'. The equivalent
bend radius (Re) is estimated by
Re  r (1  0 .5 s / r cot  ) for closed spaced mitres
2 2

Re  r 2 ( 1  cot  ) for widely spaced mitres

where,
s = mitre spacing at centerline, inches (mm)
  one half of angle between cuts
r2 = mean radius of pipe, inches (mm)
5.3.3 Tees

The unreinforced fabricated tee is modelled

using same formula for widely spaced miter bend with
single miter i.e. half angle of 45o. This produces the
flexibility characteristic of
h  T / r2

For buttweld tees, Markyl adapted bend equation with

equivalent radius (Re) and equivalent thickness (Te).

h  c(Te Re/ r2 2 )
where,
c = ratio of tee to pipe section modulii.
= (Te/T)3/2 as recommended by ARC Markyl.
Te = Equivalent pipe wall thickness inches (mm)
= 1.60T as recommended by ARC Markyl

Re = Equivalent bending radius inches (mm)

= 1.35 r2 as recommended by ARC Markyl
Substituting these values in the expression
for h

h  ( Te / T )
3/2 2
( Te 1 . 35 r / r 2 )

h  4 .4 T / r2
5.3.4 FLANGES

For flanges also the flexibility factor is 1 and the

various types of flanges are considered to have the
following Stress Intensification Factors.

S I F for Flanges:
 
Weld neck flange 1.0
Slip-on flange 1.2
Socket weld flange 1.3
Lap joint flange 1.6
Threaded flange 2.3
 
The flange when attached to the bend exerts a severe
restraint to the flattening of the cross section due to
its heavy construction. Hence attachment of the
flange to an elbow or a mitre bend reduces the
flexibility as well as the stress intensification factor.
Flange at both ends of the elbow reduces these
factors further.
ASME B 31.3 indicates these correction (reduction)
factor as:
C1 = h1/6 for one end flanged

C1 = h1/3 for both ends flanged

Fig. 5.16
5.3.7 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SIF AND
FLEXIBILITY FACTOR

In large diameter thin walled elbows and bends,

pressure can significantly affect the Flexibility Factor `k’
and Stress Intensification Factor `i’. Hence the
correction factor as below should be applied on the
values available from the table.
Divide ‘k’ by  7/3 1/3

 P  r2   R1 
1  6    
  E  T   r2  

Divide ‘i’ by
  P  r2   R 1  
5/2 2/3

1  3.25   
  E  T   r2  
Where;

TNominal wall thicnkess of fitting, inches (mm)

r Meanradius of matching end, inches (mm)
2

P =Gauge pressure, psi (KPa)

EModulus of Elasticity, psi (KPa)
R Bend radius, inches (mm)
1

This stiffening effect of pressure on bends are not

considered in ASME B 31.1.
6.0 CODE STRESS EQUATIONS

6.1 ASME B 31.1

ASME B 31.1 specifies under clause 104.8 that

to validate a design under the rules of this clause, the
complete piping system must be analyzed between
anchors for the effects of thermal expansion,
weight, other sustained loads and other occasional
loads.

 
6.1.1 STRESS DUE TO SUSTAINED LOADS

The effects of pressure, weight and other

sustained mechanical load must meet the requirements of
the following equation.
P Do 0.75 i MA
SL = +  Sh in USCS units
4 tn Z

  P Do 1000(0.75 i) MA
SL = +  Sh in SI units
4 tn Z
 
 Where;
SL = Sum of the longitudinal stresses due to
pressure, weight and other sustained loads,
psi (KPa)
i = Stress intensification factor
(ref. Appendix D-1)
The product 0.75i shall never be taken as less than 1.
MA= resultant moment due to weight and
sustained loads, in-lb (mm – N)
M M  M
2 2 2
= x y z

 
Z = Section Modulus, in3 (mm3)
tn = Nominal Thickness, in (mm)
Sh = Basic allowable stress at the operating temp.,
psi (KPa)
6.1.2 THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE

The effects of thermal expansion must meet the

requirements of the following equation.

i Mc
SE =  SA + f (Sh –SL) In USCS units
Z

1000 i Mc
SE =  SA + f (Sh –SL) In SI units
Z
Where,

SE = Expansion stress range psi (KPa)

Mc = Range of resultant moments due to thermal
expansion, in- lb (mm – N)

= M x
2
M y
2
 M z
2

SA = Allowable stress range (Ref 2.4.3 above) psi

(KPa)
 6.1.3 STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL LOADS.

The effects of pressure, weights, other sustained loads

and occasional loads including earthquake must meet the
requirements of the following equation.
 
P Do 0.75 i MA 0.75 i MB
+ +  KSh in USCS units.
4 tn Z Z
 
P Do 1000(0.75 i) MA 1000(0.75 i) MB
+ +  KSh in SI units. 
4 tn Z Z
 
Where,
K = 1.15 for occasional loads acting less than
10% of any 24 hr. operating period.
K = 1.2 for occasional loads acting less than 1%
of any 24 hr. operating period.
MB = Resultant moment loading on cross
section due to occasional loads.
If calculation of moments due to earthquake is
required, use only one half of the earthquake
moment range. Effect of anchor displacement
due to earthquake may be excluded from the
equation if they are covered in Thermal
Expansion stress range calculation.
6.2 ASME B 31.3

6.2.1 ASME B 31.3 does not provide an explicit

equation for sustained stress calculation, but requires
that Piping Engineer should compute the longitudinal
stresses due to weight, pressure and other sustained
loading and ensure that these do not exceed Sh. The
thickness of pipe used in calculating SL shall be the
nominal thickness less the erosion and corrosion
allowance. This is calculated by looking at Clause
302.3.5 (c)
 Fax (iiM i) 2 + (ioM o) 2 Pdo
SL = + +  Sh in USCS units
Am Z 4t

Fax 1000 [(iiMi) 2+ (ioM o)2] 1/2

SL = +  Sh in SI units
Am Z
where,

SL = Sum of longitudinal stress due to pressure

weight and other sustained loading, psi
KPa)
Fax = Axial force due to sustained (primary)
loading, lbs (kg)
Am = Metal cross sectional area, in2 (mm2)
Mi = In-plane bending moment due to sustained
(primary) Loading, in-lb (mm–N)
Mo = Out-plane bending moment due to sustained
(primary) Loading, in-lb (mm–N)
ii,io = In-plane and out-plane stress intensification
factors
6.2.2     THERMAL EXPANSION STRESS RANGE

The computed displacement stress range shall

be done as below (Ref. Clause 319.4.4). The range
of bending and torsional stresses shall be computed
using the as installed.
Modulus of Elasticity ‘Ea’ and then
combined as below to determine the computed
stress
SE  Sb range.
2
4St 2
where
Sb Resultantbendingstress,psi (KPa)
St TorsionalStress= Mt/ 2z, psi
1000Mt/2z, KPa
M t Torsionalmoment,in - lb (mm- N)
ZSectionModulusof Pipe,in 3 (mm3 )
(b) The resultant bending stress to be used in the above
equation for elbows and full size branch connection
shall be calculated as follows
ii Mi 2 i0 M0 2
Sb 
Z
1000 ii Mi  i0 M0 
2 2

Sb 
Z
where
ii in  planeSIF
io out  planeSIF
Mi in  planeBendingMoment
Mo out  planeBendingMoment
ZSectionModulusofPipe
 Fig. 6.1 – Moments in
Bends

Fig. 6.2 – Moments in Tees

For Reducing outlet branch connections, the equation
shall be as follows.

For Header,

i i M i 2  i 0 M 0 2 in USCS units
Sb
Z

1000 [ (iiMi)2 +(ioMo)2 ] 1/2

Sb = in SI units.

Z
For Branch,
i i M i 2  i 0 M 0 2
Sb 
Ze
where
S b  Resultant bending stress
Z e effective section modulus of branch
2
= π r2 Ts
r2  mean branch cross - sectional radius
Ts effective branch wal l thicnkess ,
lesser of T h and (i i )( T b)
T h Thickness of pipe matching run of tee
or header exclusive of renforceme nt
T b Thickness of pipe matching branch
For branch connection, the resultant bending stress
needs special care as section modulus Z of header and
branch is different.
 6.2.2        STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL
LOADS

ASME B 31.3 do not specifically define the

equation for calculating the stresses due to occasional
loads. The code, under clause 302.3.6 only states that the
sum of longitudinal stresses due to sustained and
occasional loads shall not exceed 1.33 times the basic
allowable stress. The method adopted is to calculate the
sustained and occasional stresses independently and to
then add them absolutely.
CAUTION

The pipe thickness has no significant effect on

bending stress due to thermal expansion but it affects end
reaction in direct ratio so overstress cannot be nullified
by increasing the thickness. On the contrary this makes
the matter worse by increasing end reactions.
 COMPARISON OF CODES

Based on the above, we can identify the difference in

approach between these two codes
•Stress increase due to occasional loads are different in each
code.
•Allowable stresses are different for each code.
•ASME B 31.3 include Fax in the stress calculation due to
sustained load where as ASME B 31.1 neglects all forces
•ASME B 31.3 calculation methods are undefined for sustained
and occasional loads whereas ASME B 31.1 is explicit for the
same.
•For calculation of stresses due to sustained loads ASME B31.3
neglects torsion where as ASME B31.1 includes it.
•ASME B31.1 intensifies torsion where as ASME B 31.3 does
not.
For simple cantilever, the deflection is given by the
formula
P L3
y =
3EI
  3EyI
Hence, P =
L3
E, y, L remaining the same, P = k I
3E y
where k =
L3
For 6”(150 mm) NB Sch. 40 pipe
I = 1170 cm4
Z = 139 cm3
For 6” (150 mm) NB Sch. 80 pipe
I = 1686 cm4
Z = 200 cm3
Therefore,
 
Sch. 40 Sch. 80
Load P 1170 k 1686 k
Moment M 1170 k L 1686 k L
Stress = M/Z 8.4 k L 8.4 k L
 
Form the above it can be seen that although
the stress remains the same, the forces and moments
increase with the increase in thickness of the pipe.
Where the piping system encounters large end
reactions or detrimental over strain and it lacks
built in changes in the direction to absorb the
same, the Piping Engineer should consider
adding flexibility by one or more of the following
means; addition of bends, loops or offsets, swivel
joints, corrugated pipes, expansion joints or other
means permitting angular, rotational or axial
movements. Suitable anchors shall be provided to
resist the end forces.
 8.0              COLD SPRING

Piping Engineer may also provide cold cut or cold

spring to limit the value of stress and moment. Cold
spring is defined by the code ASME B 31.3 under clause
319.2.4 as the intentional deformation of piping during
assembly to produce a desired initial displacement and
stress.
No credit for cold spring is permitted in the stress
range calculation since the service life of a system is
affected more by the range of stress variation than by
magnitude of stress at a given time.
 ASME B 31.3 gives the formula for calculation of
maximum reaction or moment when cold spring is
applied to a two anchor piping system in clause
319.5.1 as below. where

 E
R m R 1 2 c m
3 Ea
R m = Estimated instantaneous maximum
reaction force or moment at maximum
or minimum metal temperature.
R = Range of reaction force or moments
derived from flexibility analysis
corresponding to the full displacement
stress range and based on E a .
E a = Modulus of elasticity at installation
temprature
E m = Modulus of elasticity at design temperature
c = Cold spring factor from zero for no
cold spring to 1.0 for 100% cold spring
The factor 2/3 is based on experience, which shows that specified
cold spring cannot be fully assured even with elaborate precautions.
 The value of reaction forces or moments at the
temperature at which the piping is assembled is
given by :
R a
= CR or C 1 R, whichever is greater
ShE
C 1 1 a

SE E m

R a
= Estimated instantaneous reaction
or moments at the installation
temperature
S E
= Computed displacement stress range
S h = Maximum allowable stress
at design temperature

ASME B 31.1 deals with these factors under the clause

119.9 and 119.10.
The reaction thus computed shall not exceed the limits
which the attached equipment can safely sustain.
AB = L1 = 25’
BC = L2 = 10’
CD = L3 = 5’
L1/L3 = m = 25/5 = 5
L2/L3 = n = 10/5 = 2 Kb = 8.61 Kt = 4.35
     

By referring to chart,
we get : Kx = 1.60 Ky = 0.09 Kz = 0.57

Kxy = 1.40 K = 1.50 K = 0.40

xz yz

The book gives the following formula

The stresses are evaluated from the equation,S = KC D/L 3
2

lbs/ sq. inch

Three Dimensional 90° Turns
  

 
 

The forces are evaluated from the equation,

Moments are evaluated from the equation,

F = KC I/L 32 lbs

M = KC I/L ft/lbs
where C is the expansion factor calculated from the
expression
Expansion in inches/100 ' Ec
C
1728 100
 Torsional Stress K t C D
L 3
 510  4.5
 4.35
5
 1997 lbs. / sq. inch
Expansion Stress Range  SE  Sb2  4St2
 (3952)2  (1997)2
 5619lbs/in 2
Reaction Fx K x C Ip / L32
1.6 510 13.3
5 5
434lbs.
Reaction Fy K y C Ip / L32
 0.09 510 13.3
5 5
24lbs.
Reaction Fz K z C I p / L 2
3

 0.57 51013.3
5 5
155lbs.
 I
Moment M xy  K xy C p
L 3
 1.4  510  13.3
5
 1899 ft . lbs .
I
Moment M xz  K xz C p
L 3
 1.5  510  13.3
5
 2035 ft. lbs.
I
Moment M yz  K yz C p
L 3
 0.4  510  13.3
5
 543 ft. lbs.
 For example;

Pipe = 4" std. wt. ASTM A106Gr.B

size

Operatin = 450 F
g Temp.

From table
Effective Elbow Diameter Dr = 8.78 inch From Chart, shape fs = 1.66
factor

Effective Elbow Length Lr = 4.7 feet

Square corner length   = h + H + W = l = 35.0'
Length of Short Vertical Leg : h = 5'
Sum of elbow lengths   = 2 Lr = 2 x 4.7 = 9.4'
Length of Long Vertical Leg : H= 25'

Length of horizontal offset : W = 5' Total effective length   = l + 2 Lr = L = 44.4'

h/H = 5/25 = 0.20

Effective Diameter   = L/Dr = f1 = 44.4/8.78 = 5.06
length
H/W = 25/5 = 5.00
From Table 1

Expansion factor fe for 450 F = 73,000 psi [This can

also be calculated by the formula Expansion
inches/inch x Young’s Modulus i.e

f  E x
e c L

For C.S. Ec = 27.9 x 106

Expansion in inches per 100’ for C.S. = 3.16 from
Appendix C. ANSI B31.3
Hence,
3.16 27.910
6
fe   73,470 psi
10012

Computed Stress Range

fe fs
SE 
f1
73000  1.66
  23948 psi
5.06
S A  f 1.25 Sc  0.25 Sh 
For CS to A 106 Gr. B,
S c  20,000 psi
S h  19,450 psi at 450  F
S A  11.25  20,000  0.25  19450 
 29,862 psi
S E S A
 RATIO W/U OF LOOP WIDTH ANCHOR DISTANCE (WIDE LOOPS)
H W W H
U U
100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 85 80 70 60 100
.012
90 .014
90
80 .016
80
70 70
60 .020 60
50 50

40 EFFECTIVE LINE LENGTH .003 40

.03 L-U +2H + nL
where n is read from chart .004
30 .005 30
.04 .006
.007
H/U= .008
20 .05 20
.010
.012
.06 .014
.016
.07 .020

10 .08 10
9 .03 9
8 8
.10
7 .04 7
6 .05 6
.12
5 .06 5
.07
4 .14 .08 4

.16 .10
3 3
.12
.20 .14
2 .16 2

.20

1 .3 1
9 9
8 8
7 .4 7
6 6
.5
5 5
.6
4 4
.7
3 .8 3

1.0
2 1.2 2
1.4
1.6

H/U= 2.0

1 1
.01 .015 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .15 .20 .30 .40 .50

H W W H
RATIO W/U OF LOOP WIDTH ANCHOR DISTANCE (NARROW LOOPS)

U U

SHAPE FACTOR Fs for SYMMETRICAL EXPANSION LOOPS

 W

Z - BENDS L - BEND H
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10
100
100 .03
.03
60 60
.035
.035 70
70
.04 60
60 .04
.045 50
50 .045
.05
.05 40
40
.055
.055
.06
.06 30
30

.07 .07

.08 .08 20
20

.09 .09

.10 .10
.11 .11

.12 .12 10
10

.14 .14 8
8
7
7 .16 .16
6
6
.18
.18 5
5
.20 .20
4
4 .225
.225
.25
.25 3
3
.30
.30
.35 2
2 .35
.40
.40
.45
.5 .45
.5
.6 1.0
1.0
.7
.6
.8 .8
.8 1.0
.7 .7
.7 .8
.8 .6
.6
1.0
1.0 .5
.5

.4
.4
1.25

.3
.3 1.0
EFFECTIVE LINE LENGTH 1.5
1.25
L=H+h+w + 2L, for Z and U-Bends 2
=H+w+L, for L-Bends 1.5 .2
.2
2.5 2

4
.1
.1
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF Z-BENDS RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF U-BENDS

SHAPE FACTOR Fs for Z-, L- and U-BENDS with small H/w-Ratios

 Z - BENDS U - BENDS

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

h 100
100
60
60
w 70
70
60
60
H
100 50
50
80 40
W 40 100

60 80 30
30 50
60
40
H 20
20 50
30

25 40

20 H/w=100
30

10
10 15 25 80
60 8
8 12.5 20 50
40 7
7 10 30
10 15
20 6
6 15
8 5
5 12.5
4
4 6 10

5 3
8
3
4
H/w=100

3 5 2
2 60

40

2.5 4 30

25
2 20
15
3 12.5
1.5 10

2.5 8 1.0
1.0 1.25 6
1 2 5
.8 4 .8
.8 .7
1.0 3

.7 1.5 2.5 .7
.8 2
1.5 .8 .6
.6 1.0 1.25 1.25
.5
.5 1.0
.4
.4
1.25
.3
.3
EFFECTIVE LINE LENGTH 1.5
L=H+h+w + 2L, for Z and U-Bends
=H+w+L, for L-Bends 2
1.5 .2
.2
2.5 2

4
.1
.1 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10
RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF Z-BENDS RATIO h/H OF SHORTER TO LONGER OF U-BENDS

SHAPE FACTOR Fs for Z-, L- and U-BENDS with small H/w-Ratios

There are computer software available to handle such
complex problems. Some of the software available are :-
1. ADL PIPE
2. AUTOPIPE
3. CAESAR II
4. CAEPIPE
5. PIPEPLUS
6. TRIFLEX
7. Q-FLEX
The pipe line geometry is fed into the system along with
all the parameters such as design temperatures, pipe sizes,
bend radii, type of branch connections, locations of anchor
points and restraints. This is termed as `Modeling’ the
problem. The model can be generated by anybody who
knows how to prepare the input. The programme executes
the solutions. First complete Analysis was done in the year
1957.The analysis of the solutions is the real engineering
and is the job of a Piping Engineer.
The layout and the design of the piping and its supporting
elements shall be directed towards preventing the
following.

1. Piping stresses in excess of those permitted in

the code.
2.  Leakage at joints
3.  Excessive thrust and moments on connected
equipment (such as pumps and turbines)
4.  Excessive stresses in the supporting (or
restraining) elements.
5.  Resonance with imposed fluid induced
vibrations.
6.  Excessive interference with thermal
expansion and contraction in a piping
system which is otherwise adequately flexible.
7. Unintentional disengagement of piping
from its supports
8. Excessive piping sag in systems requiring
drainage slope.
9. Excessive distortion or rag of piping (e.g.
thermo plastics) subject to creep under
conditions of repeated thermal cycling.
10. Excessive heat flow, exposing supporting
elements to temperature extremes outside
their design limits.
Fig. 11.1
Fig. 11.2
Fig. 11.3
 L IN E N O . P A 2 4 - 6 2 0 7 - G L 3 0 1 ( J ) - 4 0 - IH 2
IT E M S IZ E Q T Y. REM ARK
B IL L O F M A T E R I A L S P E C . G L301
4 0 N B x6 0 0 L 2
L I N E N O . P A 2 4 - 5 6 1 1 - G L 3 0 1 ( J ) - 2 0 0 - IH 3

P IP E
40N B 1 IT E M S IZ E Q T Y. REMARK

R E D U C E R G AS KE T R E D U C - E LB O W
2 0N B x2000L 3

4 5 /9 0

P I P IE
2 0 0 N B x6 0 0 L 1
1 50 x40 1 2 0 0 N B x1 8 0 0 L 1

F LAN G E
2 00N B 1

H -4 4 0 1

T IN G

ELBOW
1

90
150NB
80N B 3 2 0 0 N B x5 0 N B 1 PT101 SPEC

IN S T R U M E N T
CL

40N B 12 2 0 0 N B x2 5 N B 1 PT101 SPEC

80x40 1

E C C /C C N C

TEE
200N B 10 P T F E E N V E L O P E D W IT H S T E E L
GASKET
IN S E R T
80x40 1 M 20x100 80

S TUD
B O LT
40N B 2

E Q /R E D
V A LV E 25 1 BF31TL

TEE
L IN E N O . P A 2 4 - 5 6 2 3 - G L 3 0 1 - 1 0 0 - I H 3
80 1 8F31TL IT E M S IZ E Q T Y. REMARK

VA LVE
40 3 8F31TL 1 50 x10 0 1 CO NC

C O N C /E C C
REDUCER
X -4 4 0 1

40 1 S 0 3 1 T L ( S F I)

S P E C IA L
M 20x100 8 M /C B O LT S
CL

150NB 1

GASKET
M 1 6 x90 12

S TU D /
M /C B O L T S 100NB 1

B O LT
M 1 2 x70 48 M /C B O L T S

280
M I2 x 7 0 4 S TU D

105
M 20x100 1 M /C B O LT S
N O T E : F L A N G E D R IL L I N G A S P E R

STUD
M 16x90 1 M /C B O LT S

B O LT
165
D IN 2 6 7 3 P

16

32
L I N E N O . P A 2 4 - 5 6 1 1 - G L 3 0 1 ( J ) - 8 0 - IH 2
IT E M S IZ E Q T Y. REMARK
V A LV E 30 1 8F 31TL

1800

500
40 1 8F 31TL
40NB 1 90 E LL

ELBOW
4 5 /9 0
30
8 0x4 0 1
40NB 2

E Q /R E D
105

TEE
80NB 4
G AS KET 40NB 6
1 SG 31TL
T-4 4 0 4

80
S P E C IA L
M 16x90 M /C B O LT S

STUD
B O LT
M 12x70 24 M /C B O LT S
CL

P A 2 4 - 8 6 1 1 - C L 3 0 1 ( J ) - 2 0 0 - IH 3

2000

L IN E N O . P A 2 4 - 6 6 5 7 - G L 3 0 1 ( J ) - 4 0 - IH 2

105
8091

IT E M S IZ E Q T Y. REMARK
4 0 N B x5 0 0 L 1

P IP E
203
4 0 N B x1 0 0 0 L 1

ELBOW 80N B 2

270
4 5 /9 0
80x40 1
R -4 4 0 3

C O N C /E C C
REDUCER
T-4 4 0 1
CL

40N B 7
G AS KET
80N B 1

CL
S P E C IA L 40 1 S G 3 1 T L ( S F I)
V A LV E 40 1 B F31TL
2000

NUT/ M 12x90 4 M /C B O LT S
B O LT M 12x70 28 M /C B O LT S
R -4 4 0 1

REFRENC E DW G . NO
CL

1 E Q U IP M E N T L A Y O U T A T 1 0 6 . 0 0 0 M B P 1 0 1 5 -P O -3 5 0 1

2 E Q U IP M E N T L A Y O U T A T 1 1 2 . 0 0 0 M B P 1 0 1 5 -P O -3 5 0 2

3 E Q U I P M E N T L A Y O U T A T S E C 'B - B ' B P 1 0 1 5 -P O -3 5 0 6

4 P IP IN G L A Y O U T B P 1 0 1 5 -P O -3 4 0 7

5 P & L D IA G R A M N O . B P 1 0 1 5 -F I-1 4 3 6 / 0

6 P & L D IA G R A M N O . B P 1 0 1 5 -F I-1 4 2 D R A F T