CHAPTER-TWO

S O U R C E O F WAT E R S U P P LY
 Ty p e s o f Wa t e r S o u rc e s

sources of water supply schemes can conveniently be classified as:

1. Rain:
harvesting rain water from different catchment
2. Surface water:
Rivers, Lakes, Pond, Sea water, Impounding reservoirs, Wastewater reclamation
3. Underground sources
Springs
Depression springs
Contact springs
Artesian springs
Wells
Shallow wells
Deep wells
Infiltration galleries
Infiltration wells
 Underground sources

Wells: Are artificial holes or pits vertically excavated for bringing ground water to
the surface.
i. Shallow wells: may be large diameter hand dug wells (diameter 1-4m) and depth
<20m. Or machine drilled wells of small diameter (diameter 8-60cm) and depth
<60m.
ii. Deep wells: are most large, deep, high-capacity wells constructed by drilling rig.
 Construction can be accomplished by cable tool method or rotary method.
 Drilling rigs are capable of drilling wells 8 to 60cm in diameter and depth <
600m.
iii. Infiltration Gallery: is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed
through water bearing strata.
 It is sometimes referred as horizontal well.
 S e l e c t i o n o f w a t e r s u p p l y s o u rc e s

o The choice of water supply source depends on the following factories:

Location: The sources of water should be as near as to the town as
possible.
Quantity of water: the source of water should have sufficient quantity of
water to meet up all the water demand through out the design period.
Quality of water: The quality of water should be good which can be
easily and cheaply treated.
Cost: The cost of the units of the water supply schemes should be
minimum.
 Groundwater Flow to Wells (Definitions)
• Drawdown, s - The drop of the WT
elevation from the original WT level in
a well due to pumping.
• Cone of depression – the conical-
shaped depression of the WT around a
pumping well caused by the withdrawal
of water.
• Area of influence – the areal extend of
the cone of depression.
• Radius of influence, R – maximum
horizontal extend of the cone of
depression when the well is in
equilibrium with inflows.
Aquifer Types and Properties
 Groundwater Flow to Wells
Types of Groundwater Flow into a well:

• Steady Flow - flow in which piezometric head (WT level)

does not changes with time, equilibrium.
• Unsteady flow - flow in which piezometric head (WT level)
changes with time.
Analysis of Groundwater Flow to Wells

• Involves:
Steady Flow -Confined Aquifers
Steady Flow -Unconfined Aquifers
Unsteady Flow -Confined Aquifers
Unsteady Flow -Unconfined Aquifers
 Determination of yields of wells

A) Shallow wells:
The yields of an open well can be determined by the
following two tests
1) Constant level test (pumping test)
 the water level is depressed by some head (H).Then the
rate of pumping is adjusted in such a way that the water
level remains constant in the well. At this time, the rate
of pumping is equal to the rate of yield from the well.
 From Darcy’s Law, V = Ki = KH/L • A = Cross-Sectional area of permeable Layer
through which water

• enters the well

• I = Hydraulic gradient

• H = Depression head

• L = Length of flow path

• C = Percolation intensity coefficient

Where Q = Discharge
2) Recuperation Test
In this test, the water from the well is pumped to a depression head H1 and
the pumping is stopped. The water level is rises due to the ground water flow.
The rate of yield may be calculated from the Expression assumed below;
• H1 = Depression head when pumping was stopped.
• H2 = Depression head after a certain period
• T = Time taken by the water level to rise from H1 to H2
• H = Depression head at time t
• ∆H = Decrease in depression head in time ∆t
 Determination of yield of tube well (Deep well)

• The drawdown of the GWT during flow from a well varies

with distance, the cone of depression. If we want to know
the difference in height h of the GWT at different distances
r away from the well, we can sum thin cylinders of water
around the well. Cylinders have lateral area 2pr . height.
Determination of yield of tube well: Unconfined
Aquifer
Assumptions:
– The aquifer is confined.
– The aquifer has infinite aerial extent.
– The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and uniform thickness.
– The piezometric surface is horizontal prior to pumping.
– The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
– The well penetrates the full thickness of the aquifer and thus receives
water by horizontal flow.
 Determination of yield of tube well:
Unconfined Aquifer
• If the aquifer is unconfined, the cylinder has height h,
and Darcy’s Equation for flow
can be integrated for a solution for ‘r’ and ‘h’ as well.

Such expressions can be

solved for K
 Unconfined Aquifer
Solve for K
• If we solve

for K we get:

S=h2-h1, h2=S+h1, h1+h2=S+2h2

H22-h21=(h1+h2)(h1-h2)=S(S+2h1)
 #Example
A 30 cm well fully penetrates an unconfined
aquifer of 25 m saturated depth. When a
discharge ofwells
observation 2100at
lpm
radial
wasdistances
being pumped
of 30 for
m and
a 90 m indicated drawdown
long
of 5mtime,
and 4m respectively.

Estimate;
(a) The permeability of the aquifer, K
(b) The transmissibility of the aquifer, T
(c) The drawdown at the pumping well, sw
 Solution…#Example
Given;
s2
s1 = 5.0 m and r1 = 30 m, s1

s2 = 4.0 m and r2 = 90 m, sw

H = 25 m (saturated thickness of H
unconfined aquifer)
ℎ1 = 𝐻 − 1 = 25 − 5 m = 20 m
ℎ2 = 𝐻 − 25 − 4 m = 21 m
2 =

The discharge is
liter 1 m3 1 min Note:
= 2100 × × = 0.035 m3/s
min 1000 liter 60 s 1 m3 = 1000 liter
Thus, the drawdown at the pumping well is

𝑤 = 𝐻 − ℎ𝑤 = (25 − 14.22) m = 10.78 m

 Example: unconfined
• An unconfined well has a diameter of 60cm the depth
of water in the well is 40cm before pumping is started.
When pumping is being done at the rate of 2000 liters
per minutes. The drawn down in a well 10m away is
4m and in another well 20m away is 2m. Determine
1. Radius of influence(R)
2. Coefficient of permeability(K)
3. Drawn down in the well(Sw)
 #Question
A 30 cm diameter well completely penetrates an unconfined aquifer of
saturated depth 40 m. After a long period of pumping at a steady rate of
1500 liter per minutes, the drawdowns in two observation wells 25 m
and 75 m from the pumping well were found to be 3.5 m and 2.0 m
respectively. (1) Calculate the transmissibility of the aquifer and (2) Find
the drawdown at the
pumping well.
 Determination of yield of tube well:
Confined Aquifer

Assumptions:
• The aquifer is confined.
• The aquifer has infinite aerial extent.
• The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and uniform
thickness.
• The piezometric surface is horizontal prior to pumping.
• The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
• The well penetrates the full thickness of the aquifer and thus
receives water by horizontal flow.
 Determination of yield of tube well: Confined Aquifer
• If the aquifer is confined, the cylinder has height h = b,
and Darcy’s Equation for flow
can be integrated for a solution for r and h:
 Confined Aquifer: Solve for T

• If we solve

for T=Kb we get:

 #Example 1
The discharge from a fully penetrating well
operating under steady state in a confined
aquifer of 35 m thickness is 2000 lpm. Values of
drawdown at two observation wells located 12 m
and 120 m away from the well are 3m an d 0.3m
respectively
 Solution…#Example 1
Given;
s1 = 3.0 m and r1 = 12 m,
s2 = 0.30 m and r2 = 120 m,

B = 35 m (saturated thickness
of confined aquifer)

The discharge is
liter 1 m3 1 min
= 2000 × × = 0.0333 m3/s Note:
min 1000 liter 60 s
1 m3 = 1000 liter
 #Example 2
The discharge from a fully penetrating well
confinedoperating
aquifer under
of 30 steady state in ais 2100 liter/min. The drawdowns
m thickness
observed at two observation wells located at 15 m and 150 m from the well
are 3.2 m and 0.28 m respectively. Determine the transmissibility and the
permeability of the aquifer.
Ground surface
Pre-pumping
head
Pumping
sw

B h2

2
aquifer
 Solution…#Example 2
Given;
s1 = 3.2 m and r1 = 15 m,
s2 = 0.28 m and r2 = 150 m,

B = 30 m (saturated thickness
of confined aquifer)

The discharge is
liter
1 m3 1 min
= 2100 × × = 0.035 m3/s Note:
min 1000 liter 60 s
1 m3 = 1000 liter
 #Example 3

A 30 cm diameter well completely penetrates a confined aquifer of

permeability 45 m/day. The length of the strainer is 20 m. Under steady state
of pumping, the drawdown at the well was found to be 3.0 m and the radius
of influence was 300 m. Calculate the discharge.
 Solution…#Example 3
Information given:
R = 300 m, sw = 3.0 m, B = 20 m

Diameter of well, 2rw = 30 cm

30
𝑤= = 15 cm = 0.15 m
2

m 1 day 1 hr 1 min
𝐾 = 45 × × × = 5.208 × 10−4 m/s
day 24 hr 60 min 60 s

𝑇 = 𝐾 = (5.208 × 10−4 m/s) 20 m = 1.04 × 10−2m2/s

 #Example 4
For the well in the previous example, calculate the discharge;
a) If the well diameter is 45 cm and all other data remain the
same as in #Example 3,
b) If the drawdown is increased to 4.5 m and all other data
remain unchanged as in #Example 3,
 #Question
An aquifer pump test was conducted in a confined
aquifer. The thickness of the aquifer is 25 m. The
well was pumped
drawdowns observed
at 31.54
at two
liter/s.
observation
After 1 day,
wellsthe
located 50 m and 100 m from the
pumping well were measured as 0.8 m and 0.37 m respectively. Assuming
steady - state conditions,

(a) Estimate the transmissibility and the permeability of the aquifer.

(b) If the diameter of well is 30 cm and the piezometric heads at two

observation wells located 50 m and 100 m from the pumping well were
measured as 13.585 m and 14.015 m respectively, calculate the magnitude
of piezometric head at the pumping well.
THANK YOU