STATISTICS

A branch of mathematics that deals with:

o Planning
o Collecting
o Organizing
o Presenting
o Analyzing
o interpreting
 ADOLF
QUETELET
Father of basic
statistics
 Statistical Methods are used in Data
Analysis

DESCRIPTIVE INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS STATISTICS
which summarize which draw
data from a sample conclusions from data
using indexes such as that are subject to
the mean or standard random variation.
deviation.
  TERMS AND DEFINITIONS AND THEIR
EXAMPLES:
VARIABLE
A characteristic or attribute of interest about each individual element of
population or sample that can assume different values.
examples:
A student’s age at entrance into college
Color of the student’s hair

DATA
It is a colllection of observation ,counts ,measurements or responses

POPULATION
collection of all outcomes,responses,measurements or counts that are of
interest.

SAMPLE
A subset or part of a population,or a group of subjects selected from a
population
  TERMS AND DEFINITIONS AND
THEIR EXAMPLES
QUALITATIVE
Represents differences in quality,character or kind but not in amount.
Examples. Sex,birthplace,geographic locations,religion preference and even eye color.

QUANTITATIVE
A numerical in nature and can be ordered or ranked
Examples: Weight,height,age,test scores,speed, and body temperature.

DISCRETE(Qualitative)
Assume values that can be counted and assigned such as 1, 2, 3 and are said to be
countable.
Examples: no. of children in a family,no. of students in a classroom.

CONTINOUS(Quantitative)
Assume an infinite number of values in an interval between any two specific values.they
obtained by measuring and include farctions and decimals.
Examples: length.temperature,time ,mass
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT
is the process of determining the
value or label of the variable based
on what has been obvserved.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
NOMINAL LEVEL OF ORDINAL LEVEL OF
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
Data are qualitative only Data at this level can be
Data at this level are arranged in order or
categorized using ranked,but differences
names,labels or qualities. between data entries are
not meaningful.
Examples:
Examples:
Zip code and gender
grade(a,b,c,d)
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
INTERVAL LEVEL OF RATIO LEVEL OF
MEASUREMENT MEASUREMENT
Data can be ordered and Data are similar to data
meaningful differences at the interval level with
between data entries can the added property that a
be calculated. zero entry is an inherent
Example: zero.
NAT Example:
score.temperature,IQ Height,weight,time,
salary,age
  PRESENTATION OF DATA
(Methods of Presenting Data)

TEXTUAL METHOD
this method presents the collected data in
narrative and paragraph forms.
TABULAR METHOD
the collected data in table which orderly
arrange in rows and columns.
GRAPHICAL METHOD
the collected data presents in visual or pictorial
to get a clearview.
  Sampling Techniques

CENSUS
SAMPLING –process of
selecting individuals from target
population.
SAMPLING FRAME-list of all
elements
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
AND HISTOGRAM
RAW DATA-are data collected in an investigation that are not organized

systematically .
GIVEN:

10 5 3 8 1
15 4 6 9 2
14 3 3 4 3
STEM AND LEAF DIAGRAM:

STEP 1: Setting up an array from largest

to the smallest. ARRAY-an ordering of
the observations from smallest to the
largest or vice versa

15 9 5 3 3
14 8 4 3 2
10 6 4 3 1
STEM AND LEAF DIAGRAM:

STEP 2: Setting up into

stem and Leaf Diagram.

0 9 8 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 1

1 5 4 0
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
   ARRANGEMENT ITSELF
-THE
THREE STEPS:
1. Deciding on a set of grouping called classes.
2. Tallying the data into classes
3. Counting the number of tallies in each class
called CLASS FREQUENCIES.
4. In finding the interval between classes we used
the formula:
i= = =2.73 0r 3
 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
TABLE:
CLASS TALLY FREQUENCY RELATED PERCENTAG
(f) FREQUENCY E(P)
(rf) RFX 100
F per class /n

1-3 IIIIII 6 0.4 40

4-6 IIII 4 0.27 27

7-9 II 2 0.13 13

10-12 I 1 0.07 7

13-15 II 2 0.13 13

TOTAL 15 1 100
 LIMITS AND CLASS MARK

classes Upper Lower Lower Upper Class

mark/midpoi
limit limit boundary boundary nt
(upperlimit +
lower limit /2
1-3 1 3 0.5 3.5 2

4-6 4 6 3.5 6.5 5

7-9 7 9 6.5 9.5 8

10-12 10 12 9.5 12.5 11

13-15 13 15 12.5 15.5 14

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
GRAPHICAL FORMS-Presenting info. Is often more
helpful in making a stranger visual impart.

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
HISTOGRAM-one of the most easily interpreted charts.

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
 GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
PIE CHART-A circle is divided into sectors or pie-shaped
pieces.
Sales

1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
(UNGROUPED DATA)
MEAN
 
is the average values of all the data in the
set.
x=
x=
x=
x =9 so the mean score is 9.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
(UNGROUPED DATA)

MEDIAN
 
is the value that has exactly half the data above and below it.To
determine the value of median for ungrouped,we need to consider tgwo
rules:
 IF N IS ODD(3,5,7,9),THE MEDIAN IS THE MIDDLE RANKED
Example. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 .You can use the ranked value
formula: x = = = =3
 IF N IS EVEN(2,4,6,8),THE MEDIAN IS THE AVERAGE OF THE
TWO MIDDLE RANKED VALUES.
Example. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6.
x = = =3.5
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
(UNGROUPED DATA)
MODE
is the value that occurs most frequently in the set.
TYPES OF MODE:
UNIMODAL
Only one value that occur with greatest frequency. Ex.
1,1,1,2,3,4,5
BIMODAL
Has two values that occur with greatest frequency. Ex.1,1,2,2,3,4,5
MULTIMODAL
There are some cases when a data set values have the same number
of frequency. Ex. 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,5
NO MODE
No same values that occur with greatest frequency. Ex.1,2,3,4,5
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
(GROUPED DATA)

  MEAN
x=
MEDIAN
x=Lb+( ) i
MODE
x=LbMo+( ) i
 SOURCES OF DATA:
PRIMARY DATA
Data are collected directly by the researcher
himself.
SECONDARY DATA
Data are information taken from published or
unpublished materials previously gathered by
other researchers or agency such as
books,newspapers,magazine,journals,thesis,or
disertations
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING SYSTEMATIC RANDOM

SAMPLING

It is a process of A systematic
selecting n(sample sample is a sample in
sixe) in the which each number of
population via the population is
random numbers assigned in number.
through lottery
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
A certified sample is a
sample obtained by dividing
the population into
subgroups called
strata.According to various
homogenous characteristic
and then selecting members
from each stratum for the
sample.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
It can be done by
subdividing the population
into smaller units and then
selecting only at random
some primary
units,geographical area or
schools in a large school
district.
 MEASURES OF POSITION
(UNGROUPED DATA)

DECILE
 
Are values which divide the data into ten equal parts.
D=
K

QUARTILE
Are values which divide the data into four equal parts
Q=
K

PERCENTILE
Are values which divide the data into one hundred equal
parts.
P=
K
 MEASURES OF POSITION
(GROUPED DATA)
 
DECILE
Are values which divide the data into ten equal parts. DK=
QUARTILE
Are values which divide the data into four equal parts
QK =
PERCENTILE
Are values which divide the data into one hundred equal parts.
PK =
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

RANGE
 
is the difference between the highest and the lowest values
in the set of data.
R=HV-LV
VARIANCE
Square of the standard deviation and also known as the
mean square.It is important measure of variation.
S²=
STANDARD DEVIATION
Referred as the root mean square of the deviations from the
arithmetic means and also the root of variance.
s=√ =
 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
 Standard Deviation is a statistic that characterizes a
distribution of score . It increases indirect proportion as the
scores spread out more widely, the larger the standard
deviation, the wider the spread of scores.
 It is illustrated by the normal curve where it is a
symmetrical curve having a bell-like shape.
 The total area of the normal curve represents the scores in
a normal distribution.
 The mean, median and mode are identical ,so the mean
falls at the exact center of the curve .The curve has no
boundaries in either direction, for the curve never touches
the baseline no matter how far it is extended. The curve is
a curve of probability, not of certainty.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE
NORMAL CURVE
To calculate the percentile rank of scores in a
distribution
To normalize a frequency distribution,which is
an important process in standardizing a
psychological test or inventory.
To test the significance of observe measures in
expeeriments,relating them to chance
fluctuations or errors that are inherent in the
process of sampling or generalizing about
population form which the samples are drawn
(Best 1990)

STANDARD
  SCORES use a common scale to indicate
how an individual compares to the other individuals in a
group.These scores are particularly helpful in comparing
an individual’s brelative position on different instruments.
(Fraenkel 1994)
Z SCORES are standard scores that tells how far a raw
score is far from the mean in standard deviation units.The
formula is
z=
T SCORES are scores that are expressed in another way.
t=50+10z
COMPUTING NORMAL PROBABILITIES
1.Between zero and any number,
just look up the area in the
table.
2.Between two positives and two
negatives,look up the area and
subtract smaller from the larger
3.Between negative and
positive,just add the area of
them.
4.Less than a negative or
greater than a positive,look for
tha area and subtract it from o.5
5.Greater than a negative or
less than a positive ,look for the
area and add o.5
 SKEWNESS

It refers to the symmetry or

asymmetry of the frequency
distribution.
The direction of the long tail of
the distribution points the
direction of the skewness
 SHAPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS

SYMMETRIC DISTRIBUTION example

4.5
When a vertical line can 4
be drawn through the middle 3.5
of a graph of the distribution 3
2.5
and the resulting halves are 2
approximately mirror 1.5
1
images. 0.5
0
 SHAPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS

UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION example

3.5
When all entries or 3
classes in the distribution 2.5
have equal or 2
approximately equal 1.5
1
frequencies.It is also 0.5
symmetric. 0
uniform or rectangular
 SHAPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS

SKEWED LEFT DISTRIBUTION example

4.5
A distribution is 4
skewed left (negatively 3.5
3
skewed) when its tail 2.5
2
extends to the left. 1.5
1
0.5
0
Category 1
 SHAPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS

SKEWED RIGHT DISTRIBUTION

example
5
A distribution is
skewed right (positively 4

skewed) when its tail 3

extends to the right. 2

1
0
skewed right
 SKEWNESS FORMULA

  Sk=

Sk=0 is perfectly symmetrical

Sk>0 is skewed to right
Sk<0 is skewed to the left
 KURTOSIS

It came from the Greek word or meaning.

In statistics,kurtosis(or excess) is a
statistical measure used to describe the
distribution of observed data around the
mean.
It measures the relative of a distribution.
 TYPES OF KURTOSIS
Leptokurtic are distributions when values clustered
heavily or pile up in the center. There are tall
distribution with narrow humps and long and high
tails. It’s kurtosis is positive ,k>3 and it denotes
high degree of peakness .
Mesokurtic are intermediate distributions which are
neither too peaked or too flat. k=3,kurtosis is zero.
Platykurtic are flat distributions with values more
evenly distributed about the center with broad
humps and short tails.It’s kurtosis is negative, k<3
and it denotes low degree of peakness .
 KURTOSIS FORMULA

 
K=
-THE END-