Chapter 3

Thinking Like a
Researcher

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Business Research Methods, 10e Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
 3-2

Learning Objectives

Understand . . .
• The terminology used by professional
researchers employing scientific thinking.
• What you need to formulate a solid
research hypothesis.
• The need for sound reasoning to enhance
research results.
 3-3

Research and Intuition

“If we ignore supernatural inspiration,

intuition is based on two things: experience
and intelligence. The more experience I have
with you, the more likely I am to encounter
repetition of activities and situations that help
me learn about you. The smarter I am, the more
I can abstract from those experiences to find
connections and patterns among them.”
Jeffrey Bradshow, creator of the
software that searches databases
 3-4

Language of Research

Conceptual
Conceptual
Concepts
Concepts Constructs
schemes
schemes

Operational
Operational
Models
Models definitions
definitions
Terms
Terms used
used
in
in research
research
Theory
Theory Variables

Propositions/
Propositions/
Hypotheses
Hypotheses
 3-5

Language of Research

Clear conceptualization
of concepts
Success
of
Research Shared understanding
of concepts
 3-6

Job Redesign Constructs and Concepts

 3-7

Operational Definitions

How can we define the variable

“class level of students”?
• Freshman • < 30 credit hours
• Sophomore • 30-50 credit hours
• Junior • 60-89 credit hours
• Senior • > 90 credit hours
 3-8

A Variable Is the Property Being Studied

Event Act

Variable
Variable

Characteristic Trait

Attribute
 3-9

Types of Variables

Male/Female
Dichotomous
Dichotomous
Male/Female
Employed/
Employed/Unemployed
Unemployed

Ethnic
Ethnicbackground
background
Discrete
Discrete Educational
Educationallevel
level
Religious
Religiousaffiliation
affiliation

Income
Income
Temperature
Continuous
Continuous Temperature
Age
Age
 3-10
Independent and Dependent Variable
Synonyms

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

(IV) (DV)
• Predictor • Criterion
• Presumed cause • Presumed effect
• Stimulus • Response
• Predicted from… • Predicted to….
• Antecedent • Consequence
• Manipulated • Measured outcome
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Relationships Among Variable Types

 3-12

Relationships Among Variable Types

 3-13

Relationships Among Variable Types

 3-14

Moderating Variables (MV)

• The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead

to higher productivity (DV), especially among
younger workers (MV)
• The switch to commission from a salary
compensation system (IV) will lead to increased
sales (DV) per worker, especially more
experienced workers (MV).
• The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance
of higher-risk behaviors to earn a family-
supporting income (DV) – particularly among
those with a limited education (MV).
 3-15

Extraneous Variables (EV)

• With new customers (EV-control), a switch

to commission from a salary compensation
system (IV) will lead to increased sales
productivity (DV) per worker, especially
among younger workers (MV).
• Among residents with less than a high
school education (EV-control), the loss of
jobs (IV) leads to high-risk behaviors (DV),
especially due to the proximity of the firing
range (MV).
 3-16

Intervening Variables (IVV)

• The switch to a commission compensation

system (IV) will lead to higher sales (DV)
by increasing overall compensation (IVV).
• A promotion campaign (IV) will increase
savings activity (DV), especially when free
prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among
smaller savers (EV-control). The results
come from enhancing the motivation to
save (IVV).
 3-17

Propositions and Hypotheses

• Brand Manager Jones (case) has a

higher-than-average achievement
motivation (variable).

Generalization

• Brand managers in Company Z (cases)

have a higher-than-average achievement
motivation (variable).
 3-18

Hypothesis Formats

Descriptive Hypothesis Research Question

• In Detroit, our potato • What is the market
chip market share share for our potato
stands at 13.7%. chips in Detroit?
• American cities are • Are American cities
experiencing budget experiencing budget
difficulties. difficulties?
 3-19

Relational Hypotheses

Correlational Causal
• Young women (under 35) • An increase in family
purchase fewer units of income leads to an
our product than women increase in the
who are older than 35. percentage of income
saved.
• The number of suits sold • Loyalty to a grocery store
varies directly with the increases the probability
level of the business of purchasing that store’s
cycle. private brand products.
 3-20

The Role of Hypotheses

Guide
Guide the
the direction
direction of
of the
the study
study

Identify
Identify relevant
relevant facts
facts

Suggest
Suggest most
most appropriate
appropriate research
research
design
design

Provide
Provide framework
framework for
for organizing
organizing
resulting
resulting conclusions
conclusions
 3-21

Characteristics of Strong Hypotheses

Adequate
Adequate
AA
Strong
Strong Testable
Testable
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Is
Is
Better
Better
than
than rivals
rivals
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Theory within Research

 3-23

The Role of Reasoning

 3-24

A Model within Research

 3-25

The Scientific Method

Direct
Direct observation
observation

Clearly
Clearly defined
defined variables
variables

Clearly
Clearly defined
defined methods
methods

Empirically
Empirically testable
testable

Elimination
Elimination of
of alternatives
alternatives

Statistical
Statistical justification
justification

Self-correcting
Self-correcting process
process
 3-26

Researchers

• Encounter problems
• State problems
• Propose hypotheses
• Deduce outcomes
• Formulate rival
hypotheses
• Devise and conduct
empirical tests
• Draw conclusions
 3-27

Curiosity Is the Ally of a Researcher

Synovate’s campaign
associates important
discoveries in research
to a common trait of
entrepreneurs: curiosity.
As one of the world’s
largest research
organizations, it claims
curiosity is “what makes
us tick.”
 3-28

Sound Reasoning

Types of Discourse

Exposition Argument

Deduction Induction
 3-29

Deductive Reasoning

Inner-city
Inner-city household
household
interviewing
interviewing is is especially
especially
difficult
difficult and
and expensive
expensive

This
This survey
survey involves
involves
substantial
substantial inner-city
inner-city
household
household interviewing
interviewing

The
The interviewing
interviewing in
in this
this
survey
survey will
will be
be especially
especially
difficult
difficult and
and expensive
expensive

© 2002 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin

 3-30

Inductive Reasoning

• Why didn’t sales increase during our

promotional event?
– Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock
to fill customer requests during the
promotional period
– A strike by employees prevented stock from
arriving in time for promotion to be effective
– A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region
for 10 days during the promotion
 3-31

Why Didn’t Sales Increase?

 3-32

Tracy’s Performance
 3-33

Key Terms
• Argument • Induction
• Case • Model
• Concept • Operational definition
• Conceptual scheme • Proposition
• Construct • Sound reasoning
• Deduction • Theory
• Empiricism • Variable
• Exposition – Control
• Hypothesis – Confounding (CFV)
–Correlational – Dependent (DV)
–Descriptive – Extraneous (EV)
–Explanatory – Independent (IV)
–Relational – Intervening (IVV)
• Hypothetical construct – Moderating (MV)