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ELEMENTS OF TECHNOLOGY (EOT)

ASSIGNMENT 3
TOPIC: SENSORS AND THEIR WORKING

Submitted To: Mr. Amit Kumar Toppo Submitted by- Bhaskar Raj
Asst. Professor Nikita Ratish
NIFT Bhubaneswar
Sensors are transducers which are devices that convert one physical
quantity to another. Widely used sensors include those that are 2
resistive, inductive, capacitive, piezoelectric, photo resistive, elastic and
thermal.

Sensors are divided into capacitive and inductive sensors. These are
sensors that change their capacitance or inductance in response to
external influences normally require the use of alternating current
(AC) circuitry. Such circuits need not be complicated.
Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal
behaviour of the sensors. Following are the various specifications of a 3
sensor/transducer system.

1. Range- The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
For example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a
range of 25-225 °C.

2. Span - The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the
input. Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.

3. Error- Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured.

4. Accuracy - The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual
measurement result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a
percentage of the full range output or full–scale deflection.

5. Sensitivity- Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of

a sensor to the per unit change in input value that causes the output change.
Nonlinearity of a Sensor-
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The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured
curve of a sensor from the ideal curve. The graph shows a somewhat
exaggerated relationship between the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the
actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often specified in terms of
percentage of nonlinearity, which is defined as: Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum
deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input (2.1.1) The static nonlinearity
defined by the equation is dependent upon environmental factors, including
temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. Therefore it is
important to know under what conditions the specification is valid
Hysteresis-
The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the 5
maximum difference in output at any measurement value within the
sensor’s specified range when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. The figure
below shows the hysteresis error might have occurred during
measurement of temperature using a thermocouple. The hysteresis
error value is normally specified as a positive or negative percentage
of the specified input range
A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or beam and look for
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changes in the field. The object being sensed is often referred to as the
proximity sensor's target. There are different types of proximity sensors
namely-
•IR (Infrared)
• Acoustic
• Capacitive
• Inductive
Infrared Proximity sensor are further divided into-
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•Reflected IR strength- It is a simple IR proximity sensor made out of
essentially just an IR LED and IR photodiode.

•Modulated IR signal- The transmitted IR is modulated and the receive circuitry

only responds to the level of the received, matching, modulated IR signal.

•Triangulation- The angle at which the reflected IR is returned to your sensor.

By use of a bit of trigonometry, the distance is computed knowing the location
of your transmit and receive elements.
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INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY
SENSOR
DEFINATION 9

 Proximity sensors detect the presence of objects without physical

contact. Since 1983 Fargo Controls’ proximity sensors have been of the
highest quality, durability & repeatability to meet today's tough
industrial requirements.

 Typical applications include the detection, position, inspection and

counting on automated machines and manufacturing systems. They
are also used in the following machinery: packaging, production,
printing, plastic moulding, metal working, food processing, etc.

 Inductive proximity sensors are electronic device that detect metal

object.
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CONCEPT

Magnetic
field
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CONSTRUCTION
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WORKING PRINCIPLE
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Eddy
current
 Eddy currents are electric currents induced
within conductors by a changing magnetic field in the
conductor
 These circulating eddies of current have inductance and
thus induce magnetic fields.
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DIFFERENT BETWEEN SHIELD
AND NON SHIELD INDUCTIVE
SENSOR
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EXAMPLES
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 Miniature inductive proximity sensors with threaded

and smooth tubular. Sensing ranges up to 5mm, non-
flush.
 Inductive proximity switches in industry standard
housings, with sensing ranges up to 15mm, non-flush.
 Small rectangular proximity sensors for applications
with limited mounting space.
 Large rectangular inductive proximity switches with
sensing ranges up to 40mm, non-flush.
 Ring and tube inductive sensors for detecting small parts in
plastic tubing.
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APPLICATION

Application 1: Determination of position

with the use of two inductive sensors.
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Application 2: Interrogation of a
camshaft gear with inductive
sensors

Wind power plant

Application 3
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CONCLUSION
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Theses are similar to Inductive Proximity Sensors. However they produce an
electrostatic field. They sense both metals as well as non metallic materials like
paper, glass, water, etc.
Working of Capacitive Sensors-
The capacitive proximity sensor works on the capacitor principle. The main
components of the capacitive proximity sensor are plate, oscillator, threshold detector
and the output circuit.
The plate inside the sensor acts as one plate of the capacitor and the target acts as
another plate and the air acts as the dielectric between the plates.
As the object comes close to the plate of the capacitor the capacitance increases and as
the object moves away the capacitance decreases. The detector circuit checks the
amplitude output from the oscillator and based on that the output switches.
The capacitive sensor can detect any targets whose dielectric constant is more than air
Standard Target and Dielectric Constant-
Standard Target and Standard targets are specified for each capacitive sensor. The
Dielectric Constant standard target is usually defined as metal and/or water. Capacitive
sensors depend on the dielectric constant of the target. The larger the dielectric number
of a material the easier it is to detect. The following graph shows the relationship of the
dielectric constant of a target and the sensor’s ability to detect the material based on the
rated sensing distance (Sr).
Applications of Capacitive Proximity Sensors-
One application for capacitive proximity sensors is level detection through a barrier. For
example, water has a much higher dielectric than plastic. This gives the sensor the
ability to “see through” the plastic and detect the water

Shielding-
All Siemens capacitive sensors are shielded. These sensors will detect conductive
material such as copper, aluminium, or conductive fluids, and nonconductive material
such as glass, plastic, cloth, and paper. Shielded sensors can be flush mounted without
adversely affecting their sensing characteristics. Care must be taken to ensure that this
type of sensor is used in a dry environment. Liquid on the sensing surface could cause
the sensor to operate
Optical Sensors-
An optical sensor converts light rays into an electronic signal. The purpose of an optical
sensor is to measure a physical quantity of light and, depending on the type of sensor,
then translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device.
Optical Sensors are used for contact-less detection, counting or positioning of parts.
Optical sensors can be either internal or external. External sensors gather and transmit a
required quantity of light, while internal sensors are most often used to measure the
bends and other small changes in direction.
The different types of optical sensors are-
•Through – beam sensors

•Retro reflective sensors

•Diffuse reflection sensors

Through-Beam Sensors
The system consists of two separate components the transmitter and the receiver are
placed opposite to each other. The transmitter projects a light beam onto the receiver.
An interruption of the light beam is interpreted as a switch signal by the receiver. It is
irrelevant where the interruption occurs.
Advantage: Large operating distances can be achieved and the recognition is
independent of the object’s surface structure, color or reflectivity
Retro-Reflective Sensors
Transmitter and receiver are both in the same house, through a reflector the emitted
light beam is directed back to the receiver. An interruption of the light beam initiates a
switching operation. Where the interruption occurs is of no importance.
Advantage: Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching
points, which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort. All objects
interrupting the light beam are accurately detected independently of their surface
structure or color.
Diffuse Reflection Sensors
Both transmitter and receiver are in one housing. The transmitted light is reflected by
the object to be detected.
Advantage: The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the switching
condition. Regardless of the sensitivity setting the rear part always reflects better than
the front part. This leads to the consequence to erroneous switching operations.
 THANK
THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION

YOU