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A numerical relay consists of the following main
subsystems:
Microprocessor
Analog input system
Digital output system
Power supply
Block Diagram of a Typical Numerical Relay
Numerical relays operate on sampled signals and
adopt digital computations.
computations. Sampling is the process
of converting analog input signals, such as current
and voltage, into digital input signals.
signals. These analog
input signals, in case of electromechanical and static
relays, are directly fed into the electromagnetic
winding or electronic circuits.
circuits. In order to protect the
relay from large transients of the input signals a
surge filter is used.
used.
An anti
anti--aliasing filter is used to avoid possible errors
in reconstructing input signal carried out after the
A/D Sample / Hold section section.. Any signal having
harmonic components of order N 1, 2N 1, «.., .., x N
1, where N is the number of samples per cycle, can
exhibit aliasing.
aliasing. Perfectly, an anti-
anti-aliasing filter has
to cut off all signal components above the Nyquist
rate of N/2
N/2. In practical, however, such a filter can
not cut off all out of band frequencies, so the anti- anti-
aliasing filter cut off frequency is set at about N/3
N/3.
The A/D converts the sample values that represent the
analog input signals into the digital input signals.
signals.
However, the conversion is not instantaneous, and for
this reason, the A/D system typically includes a
sample--and-
sample and-hold circuit.
circuit. The sample-
sample-and-
and-hold
circuit provides ideal sampling and holds the sample
values for quantization by the A/D converter
converter..
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The algorithm is designed to remove as much as possible all
of unwanted components from the input signals such as
harmonic, DC, etc
etc.. Two common algorithms, the Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) and the Root Mean Square (RMS)
algorithm are generally used.
used.
The DFT can extract any frequency from the signal.
signal. Since
the DFT is capable of rejecting everything except the
frequency being measured, it has a good response to
transient overshoot.
overshoot.
Internal Faults:-
1) ?lectrical Faults : - Faults which cause immediate
serious damage such as phase to earth or phase to
phase faults, short circuits between turns of HV&LV
windings, etc.
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Trip
The following relays are employed to protect the
transformer against internal faults.
i) Buchholz relays
V V
Bias Setting = ------------
C T Ratios and connections for differential relay
Introduction:
The impedance relays also called distance relays are
employed to provide protection to transmission lines
connected in a network as they are economic and
possess several technical advantages.
advantages. They are
comparatively simple to apply, operate with extremely
high speed, and both primary and backup protection
features are inherent in them.
them.
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Impedance relay:
Characteristics of an impedance relay on R- R-X
diagram is shown in fig
Operation of the impedance relay is independent of
the phase angle between V and I. The operating
characteristic is a circle with its center at the origin,
and hence the relay is non-
non-directional
directional..
Characteristic of Directional Impedance Relay:
Starters: -
The starting relay (or starter) initiates the distance
scheme in the event of a fault within the required
reach (more than zone-3).
Starters: -
Other functions of the starter are: -
a) Starting of timer relays for second and third zones.
b) Starting of measuring elements.
Measuring units: -
They are generally of a mho or reactance or a
combination of mho, reactance and resistance types.
Phase Fault Units:-
Auxiliary relays: -
i) Fault resistance.
Zsecy = Zpri/Impedance
Zpri/Impedance ratio
(where Impedance ratio = P.T.Ratio/
Ratio/C.T.Ratio)
Ratio)
3. Zone
Zone--3 100% of ZL + 120% 0.6 to 0.8 seconds
of ZSL
4. Zone
Zone--4 100% of ZL + 120% 0.9 to 1.5 seconds
of ZLL
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
where ZL = Positive sequence impedance of line to be
protected.
ZSL = Positive sequence impedance of adjacent shortest
line.
ZLL = Positive sequence impedance of adjacent longest
line.
Note:
i) Where a three zone relay only is available, the zone 3
will be set to cover the adjacent longest line.
jj) The zonal timings will be carefully selected to properly
grade with the relays on all the feeders emanating from
the adjacent bus.
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i) 132 KV Lines: -
A switched type distance scheme supplemented by three
numbers directional O/L relays and 1 No. directional
?/L relay.
ii)220 KV Lines: -
Two Distance Schemes: -
Main-I: - Non-switched scheme fed from bus PT.
Main-II: - A switched scheme fed from line CVT.
A provision is generally made for the changeover of
voltage supply for the distance schemes from the bus
PT to line CVT and vice-versa.
Setting range:
range:0.1 to 200 Ohms with 0.0 to 32 sec (in step of
0.01 sec) timers.
timers.
,
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This relay operates on circulating current principle
and differential current setting ( 20% In) is adopted
on the relay. The bias setting is generally set by the
relay manufacturer based on bus fault levels.
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a) Check Feature: -
To prevent incorrect tripping due to damage to wiring
and equipment from extraneous sources, check relay
is provided.
provided. This check relay is provided by
duplication of primary protection using a second set
of current transformers cores on all circuits other than
bus section and bus couple units.
units. The check system is
arranged in a similar manner of the primary
protection, but forms one zone only covering the
whole of the busbars (in case of single sectionalized
busbar or both the buses (in case of double busbar
arrangement)..
arrangement)
b) Supervision