SOIL MECHANICS

&
EOTECHNICAL ENGINEERIN
Department of Civil Engineering
CE CORRELATION COURSE
2ND SEM, SY 2019-2020
Engr. MARCELO T. ABRERA, Jr.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
- combination of Strength of Materials and Fluid
Mechanics

PHASE RELATIONSHIP
BASIC FORMULAS
WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP
 MC or MOISTURE
  𝑾𝒘
𝝎= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 CONTENT
𝑾𝒔
 𝟎< 𝝎< ∞

VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
  𝑽 𝒗
𝒆=   VOID RATIO  𝟎< 𝒆< ∞
𝑽 𝒔

  𝑽 𝒗
𝒏=   POROSITY  𝟎<𝒏 <𝟏
𝑽
  𝑽𝒘
𝑺= 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎   DEGREE OF SATURATION  𝟎< 𝑺< 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒗
  𝑽 𝒂
𝒂𝒗𝒓 =   AIR-VOID RATIO  𝟎< 𝒂𝒗𝒓 <𝟏
𝑽
WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

  𝑾
𝜸=   UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL
𝑽
(MOIST/BULK)

  𝑾 𝒔
𝜸 𝒅=   DRY UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL
𝑽

  𝑾 𝒔
𝜸 𝒔=   UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL SOLIDS
𝑽𝒔

  𝜸𝒔
𝑮𝒔 =   SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL
𝜸𝒘
SOLIDS
DERIVED FORMULA

  𝒆   𝒏
𝒏= 𝒆=
𝟏 +𝒆 𝟏− 𝒏
  𝑺𝒆= 𝝎 𝑮 𝒔
  (𝟏+𝝎 )   𝑮 𝒔 +𝝎 𝑮 𝒔   𝑮 𝒔 + 𝑺𝒆
𝜸= 𝑮 𝒔 𝜸 𝒘 𝒐𝒓 𝜸 =
  𝜸  𝒘𝒐𝒓𝜸 = 𝜸𝒘
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝒆

 For DRY SOILS,

  𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘  𝜸
𝜸 𝒅= 𝒎 =(𝟏+ 𝝎) 𝜸 𝒅
𝟏+ 𝒆
DERIVED FORMULA
 For SATURATED SOILS, ,

  𝑮 𝒔+𝒆
𝜸 𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝜸𝒘
𝟏+𝒆

 Effective Unit Weight (or Submerged or Buoyant Unit Weight),

or or

 𝜸 𝒆 = 𝜸 𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝜸 𝒍𝒊𝒒   𝑮𝒔 − 𝟏
𝜸 𝒆= 𝜸𝒘
𝟏+ 𝒆

 Critical Hydraulic Gradient,

  𝜸𝒃   𝑮𝒔 − 𝟏
𝒊 𝒄𝒓 = 𝒊 𝒄𝒓 =
𝜸𝒘 𝟏+ 𝒆
PROBLEM GE.1
A soil sample has a specific gravity of soil solids of
2.67 with a moisture content of 25% and degree of
saturation of 89%. Determine the void ratio of the
sample.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.2
 Innatural state, a moist soil has a volume of and
weighs 490 N. The oven-dried weight of the soil is
400 N. If , calculate the
① moisture content,
② moist unit weight,
③ dry unit weight,
④ void ratio,
⑤ porosity, and
⑥ degree of saturation.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.3a
 Asoil has a saturated unit weight of . Its moisture
content is 25%. Determine the void ratio of this
soil.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.3b
 A saturated soil has a unit weight of . The water is
gradually removed by oven-drying the sample. Its unit
weight when dry is . Compute its unit weight when the
degree of saturation is 0.30.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.4a
A container with saturated soil has a mass of 107 g. After
being dried, it weighs 98 g. The soil has a specific gravity of
2.70. The container alone weighs 45 g. Determine the:
① moisture content
② void ratio
③ porosity

Answer
PROBLEM GE.4b
 Acubic meter of soil in its natural state is . After oven-
drying, it weighs . Assuming specific gravity is 2.71,
determine the:
① moisture content
② void ratio
③ porosity

Answer
VOLUME and
VOID RATIO
Requirement
VOLUME and VOID RATIO Requirement

 𝑽 𝒗𝟏
𝑽 𝒗𝟐
 

 𝑽𝒔  𝑽𝒔

  𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
 

  𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
=
𝟏 +𝒆 𝟏 𝟏+ 𝒆𝟐
PROBLEM GE.5
 A building requires a fill at a void ratio of 0.20.
Material for earth fill was available from a borrow
site at P320 per cubic meter. It was found that the
average void ratio from the site was 0.80. Estimate
the total cost of fill.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.6a
An earth dam requires 1 million cubic meters of soil
compacted to a void ratio of 0.80. In the vicinity of the
proposed dam, four borrow pits were identified as having
suitable materials. The cost of purchasing the soil and the
cost of excavation are the same for each borrow pit. The only
cost difference is transportation cost. The table below
provides the void ratio and the transportation cost for each
borrow pit.
① Determine the cost for borrow pit 2.
② Determine the cost for borrow pit 4.
③ Which borrow pit is the most economical?
Borrow Pit Void Ratio Transportation Cost (per cu.m.)

1 1.80 35.00/cu.m.

2 0.90 50.00/cu.m.

3 1.50 37.50/cu.m.

4 1.30 42.00/cu.m.
Answer
RELATIVE DENSITY
RELATIVE DENSITY of GRANULAR SOILS
 The Relative Density, , is commonly used to indicate the in
situ denseness or looseness of granular soil and is defined as
  𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆
𝑫𝒓 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒏
  𝟏 𝟏
−
𝜸 𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝜸𝒅
𝑫𝒓 =
𝟏 𝟏
−
𝜸 𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝜸 𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒙
RELATIVE DENSITY of GRANULAR SOILS
PROBLEM GE.7
A sample of moist sand taken from the field was
found to have a moisture content of 14% and a
porosity of 38%. In a laboratory test that simulates
field conditions, it was found that at its loosest state,
its void ratio is 85% and at its densest state its void
ratio is 40%. Determine the relative density of the
sand.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.8a
 A sandy soil has a natural water content of 27.50% and Bulk
unit weight of . The void ratios corresponding to the densest
and loosest state are 0.51 and 0.87, respectively. Assume .
① Determine the in-situ void ratio of the soil.
② Determine the degree of saturation of the soil in its natural
state, in percent.
③ Determine the relative density of the soil, in percent, and
its designation.

Answer
CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of
firmness (e.g. soft, medium, firm or hard) of a soil.
The consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly affected by the
water content of the soil.
DESCRIPTION of SOIL based on LIQUIDITY INDEX

DESCRIPTION of SOIL based on PLASTICITY INDEX

FALL CONE METHOD
(LIQUID and PLASTIC LIMIT TEST)
Cone Penetration Test

offers more accurate method of determining both the liquid

limit and plastic limit. In this test, a cone with apex angle of
30° and total mass of 80 grams is suspended above, but just
in contact with, the soil sample.
The cone is permitted to fall freely for
a period of 5 seconds. The water
content corresponding to a cone
penetration of 20 mm defines the
liquid limit.

The plastic limit is found by repeating

the test with a cone of similar
geometry, but with a mass of 240
grams.
FALL CONE METHOD
(LIQUID and PLASTIC LIMIT TEST)

The plastic limit is given as:

CUP METHOD (LIQUID LIMIT TEST)
The device used in this method consists of a brass cup and a
hard rubber. The brass cup is dropped onto the base by a cam
operated by a crank.

The moisture content required to close a distance of 12.7 mm

along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as
the liquid limit (LL).
LIQUID LIMIT TEST

Slope of flow line

 FLOW INDEX
ONE-POINT METHOD TO DETERMINE
THE LIQUID LIMIT

𝟎 .𝟏𝟐𝟏
  𝑵
𝑳𝑳= 𝝎( )
𝟐𝟓

N must be 20-30
PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
The plastic limit of a soil is defined as the water
content at which the soil begins to crumble when
rolled into a thread 3 mm in diameter.
SHRINKAGE LIMIT TEST
 The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet
soil, , is placed in a porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and
12.5 mm high and then oven-dried. The volume of oven-dried
soil is determined by using mercury to occupy the vacant
spaces caused by shrinkage. The mass of mercury is
determined and the volume decrease caused by shrinkage can
be calculated from the known density of mercury. The
shrinkage limit is calculated from:

  𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 𝑽 𝟏−𝑽 𝟐
𝑺𝑳 = − 𝝆𝒘
𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟐
 where:
PROBLEM GE.9
Determine the natural moisture content, in percent,
of a soil given the following properties:
Plastic Limit - 27
Plasticity Index - 29
Liquidity Index - 0.30

Answer
PROBLEM GE.10a
The following data were obtained from the Atterberg
Limit tests for a soil:
Liquid Limit - 41.0%
Plastic Limit - 21.1%
① What is the plasticity index of the soil?
② If the in-situ moisture content of the soil is 30%, what
is the liquidity index of the soil?
③ What would be the nature of the soil?

Answer
PROBLEM GE.11
The results of a Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit tests are
shown in the figure.
① Determine the liquid limit of the soil.
② Determine the Plasticity Index of the soil.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.12a
Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:
Initial volume of soil in saturated state = 24.60 cc
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.90 cc
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44 g
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g
① Determine the dry density of the soil in g/cc.
② Determine the void ratio of the soil.
③ Determine the shrinkage limit, in percent, of the soil.

Answer
FLOW OF WATER
IN SOIL
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT and DARCY’S LAW
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT and DARCY’S LAW

 An important equation involving is

HYDRAULIC GRADIENT and DARCY’S LAW

In 1856, Darcy proposed that the average flow velocity of

water through soils is proportional to the gradient of the head
loss, or

The equation above is valid only in laminar flow of water through

pore spaces in the case of soils with particle size less than 1 mm.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT and DARCY’S LAW

Average Effective Velocity of Flow through the Soil

FLOW RATE

𝒉
 

𝑸= 𝑨𝒌
𝑳
where:
Q = flow rate, discharge
A = area of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow
 LABORATORY
DETERMINATION

of k
CONSTANT HEAD TEST
is used to determine the coefficient of permeability for
coarse-grained soils

 
𝑽𝑳
𝒌=
𝒕𝑨𝒉
FALLING HEAD TEST
is used to determine the coefficient of permeability for fine-
grained soils because the flow of water through these soils is
too slow to get reasonable measurement from the constant
head test.

  𝒂𝑳 𝒉𝟏
𝒌=
𝑨 (𝒕 𝟐 − 𝒕 𝟏)
𝒍𝒏
( )
𝒉𝟐

 where:
a = cross-sectional area of
the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of
the soil sample
PROBLEM GE.13
The results of a constant head permeability test for a
fine sand sample having a diameter of 150 mm and a
length of 300 mm are as follows:
Constant head difference = 500 mm
Time of collection of water = 5 min
Volume of water collected = 0.35 L
Determine the coefficient of permeability, k, in m/s.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.14
A sand layer of the cross-sectional area shown has
been determined to exist for a 450 meters length of
the levee. The coefficient of permeability of the sand
layer is 3 m/day. The impervious foundation material
is 120 m. Determine the quantity of water, Q, in
liters per minute.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.15a
 A falling head permeability test was run on a soil sample 9.6 cm
in diameter and 10 cm long. The head at the start of the test
was 90 cm. The coefficient of permeability of the soil was found
to be . The diameter of the stand pipe was 1 cm.
① Determine the flow at the start of the test, in .
② Determine how much head, in cm, was lost during the first
30 minutes.
③ Determine the flow after 30 minutes, in .

Answer
PROBLEM GE.16b
A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long. A
constant supply of water is allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A
and the outflow at B is collected by a beaker, as shown in the figure.
The average amount of water collected is 1 cc for every 10 seconds.
The tube is inclined as shown.
① Determine the average velocity of flow through soil in cm/s.
② Determine the seepage velocity (velocity through void spaces) in
cm/s.
③ Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil in cm/s.

Answer
 IMPERICAL
RELATIONS for
PERMEABILITY
EQUIVALENT
PERMEABILITY IN
STRATIFIED SOIL
IMPERICAL RELATIONS for PERMEABILITY

HAZEN FORMULA (for fairly uniform sand)

  𝟐
𝒌 =𝒄 ( 𝑫 𝟏𝟎 )

CASAGRANDE FORMULA (for fine to medium clean

sand)
𝟐
 
𝒌 =𝟏 . 𝟒 𝒆 𝒌 𝟎 .𝟖𝟓
 EQUIVALENT PERMEABILITY in
STRATIFIED SOIL

PARALLEL FLOW NORMAL FLOW

 
𝑯 𝑯
𝑯 𝒌 𝒆𝒒 𝒑𝒂𝒓=∑ 𝑯𝒌 𝒌 𝒆𝒒 𝒏𝒐𝒓
=∑
𝒌
PROBLEM GE.16
The coefficient of permeability of sand at a void ratio
of 0.80 is 0.47 mm/s. Estimate the coefficient of
permeability of this sand at a void ratio of 0.50.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.17
Find the equivalent coefficient of permeability, in
ft/min, for flow in the horizontal direction for three
layers of soil with horizontal stratification.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.18a
 The figure below shows layers of soil in a tube that is 100 mm x
100 mm in cross-section. Water is supplied to maintain a
constant head difference of 400 mm across the sample. The
hydraulic conductivities of the soils in the direction of flow
through them are shown.
① Calculate the equivalent k in cm/sec.
② Calculate the rate of water supply in .
③ Calculate the seepage velocity through soil C in m/sec.

Answer
EFFECTIVE STRESSES
IN SOILS
EFFECTIVE STRESSES IN SOILS

EFFECTIVE STRESS (INTERGRANULAR STRESS)

  ′
𝑷𝒆 , 𝑷 , 𝝈 𝒆 , 𝝈 ′  
𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷 𝑻 − 𝑷𝒘
is the stress resulting from particle-to-particle
contact of soil.

PORE WATER PRESSURE (NEUTRAL STRESS)

 
𝑷𝒘 , 𝒖  
𝑷𝒘 =𝜸 𝒘 𝒉𝒘
is the stress induced by water pressures

 NOTE: For soils above water table,

EFFECTIVE STRESSES IN SOILS

TOTAL STRESS
 
𝑷𝑻  
𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝒆 + 𝑷𝒘
the sum of the effective and neutral stress
PROBLEM GE.19
 A clay layer 10 m thick rests beneath a deposit of submerged
sand 3 m thick. The ground water table is located on the
surface of the sand. The saturated unit weight of the sand is
and of clay is . At midheight of the clay layer, calculate the ①
effective pressure, ② pore water pressure, and ③ total stress, in
kPa.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.20a
 A clay layer 25 ft thick is overlain with 50 ft thick of sand ().
The water table is 20 ft below the sand (ground) surface. The
saturated unit weight of clay is 141 pcf. The sand below the
water table has a unit weight of 128 pcf. The sand above the
water table has average moisture content of 20%. After drying,
the sand was found to have a dry unit weight of 92 pcf. At
midheight of the clay layer, calculate the ① effective pressure,
② pore water pressure, and ③ total stress, in psf.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.20b
 The surface of a saturated sand layer (, ) is located 6 m below
the surface of water. Determine in kPa the ff:
① the effective stress at a layer 5 m from the sand surface.
② the neutral stress at a layer 5 m from the sand surface.
③ the total stress at a layer 5 m from the sand surface.

Answer
PROBLEM GE.21a
A soil deposit is shown in the figure. The ground water table, initially
at the ground surface, was lowered to a depth of 25 ft below the
ground. After such lowering, the degree of saturation of the sand above
the water table was lowered to 20%
① Determine the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer before lowering of the water table.
② Determine the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer after lowering of the water table.
③ Determine the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer when there is no water in the sand layer. Assume 20%
degree of saturation above water table.

Answer
SHEAR STRENGTH
of SOILS
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

is the simplest for shear test. The test equipment consists of a
metal shear box in which the soil sample is placed. The sizes of
the sample used are usually 50 mm x 50 mm or 100 mm x 100
mm across and about 25 mm high. The box is split horizontally
into halves. A normal force is applied from the top of the shear
box. Shear force is applied by moving half of the box relative to the
other to cause failure in the soil sample.
EFFECTIVE STRESSES IN SOILS

TOTAL STRESS
 
𝑷𝑻  
𝑷𝑻 = 𝑷𝒆 + 𝑷𝒘
the sum of the effective and neutral stress
PROBLEM GE.22
A soil deposit is shown in the figure. The ground water table, initially
at the ground surface, was lowered to a depth of 25 ft below the
ground. After such lowering, the degree of saturation of the sand above
the water table was lowered to 20%
① Determine the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer before lowering of the water table.
② Determine the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer after lowering of the water table.
③ Determine the vertical effective pressure at the midheight of the
clay layer when there is no water in the sand layer. Assume 20%
degree of saturation above water table.

Answer
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
The grain size of soil particles and the aggregate structures
they form affect the ability of a soil to transport and retain
water, air and nutrients.
Grain size is classified as:

CLAY - if the particle diameter is less than 0.002 mm

SILT - if it is between 0.002 mm and 0.05 mm
SAND - if it is between 0.05 mm and 2 mm
PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
(SIEVE ANALYSIS)
PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
(SIEVE ANALYSIS)
PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
(SIEVE ANALYSIS)
 EFFECTIVE SIZE,
This parameter is the diameter in the curve corresponding to 10%
finer. The effective size of a granular soil is good measure to
estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.

 UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT,

  𝐷 60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷 10
 where diameter corresponding to 60% finer
PARTICLE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE
(SIEVE ANALYSIS)
 COEFFICIENT OF GRADATION or COEFFICIENT OF
CURVATURE,
2
 
( 𝐷3 0 )
𝐶 𝑐=
𝐷 60 𝑥 𝐷 10
 where diameter corresponding to 30% finer

 SORTING COEFFICIENT,
 
𝐷 75
𝑆𝑜=
√ 𝐷 25
 where diameter corresponding to 75% finer
 where diameter corresponding to 25% finer
PROBLEM 8
The result of the sieve analysis is shown below:
① What percentage of the soil is retained in No. 200
sieve?
② What is the effective grain size of the soil in mm?
③ Determine the uniformity coefficient.

Answer
USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
Each side of a
triangle is divided
into 100 parts,
representing the
percentage of each
soil constituents:
clay, silt and sand. A
point within a
triangle indicates
the percentage of
these constituents,
the sum which adds
up to 100%.
PROBLEM 9
A soil has the following particle size distribution:
Gravel = 20%
Sand = 10%
Silt = 30%
Clay = 40%
Classify the soil according to USDA textural classification
system.

Answer
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
(USCS)
This system classifies soils into two broad categories:

1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature

with less than 50% passing through the No. 200 Sieve. The
group symbol start with prefixes of either G or S. G for gravel
or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.

2. Fine-grained soil with 50% or more passing through the

No. 200 Sieve. The symbol start with prefixes of M, which
stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, and O for
organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck
and other highly organic soils.

Other symbols used:

W – Well graded L – low plasticity (LL < 50)
P – Poorly graded H – high plasticity (LL > 50)
PROBLEM 10
The table below shows the laboratory results of the sieve
analysis of a sample. Plot the grain size curve of the soil.
Determine the following:
① Determine the nearest value to the effective size.
② Determine the nearest value to the coefficient of
uniformity.
③ Classify the soil according to the USCS.

Answer
 AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
To classify the soil using the tables, one must apply the test
data from left to right. By process of elimination, the first
group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct
classification.

To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway subgrade

material, one must also incorporate a number called the
group index with the groups and subgroups of the soil. This
index is written in parentheses after group or subgroup
designation, example, A-7-5(35)

𝑮𝑰 =( 𝑭 𝟐𝟎𝟎 −𝟑𝟓 ) [ 𝟎 . 𝟎𝟐+ 𝟎 .𝟎𝟎𝟓 (𝒍𝒍 −𝟒𝟎) ] +𝟎 . 𝟎𝟏(𝑭 𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓)( 𝑷𝑰 −𝟏𝟎)
 where:

LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
PROBLEM 11
Classify the following soils by the AASHTO
classification system.

Answer
PROBLEM 12
The table below shows the laboratory results of the
sieve analysis of a sample. Plot the grain size curve
of the soil in the attached figure. The soil has a
liquid limit of 35% and plasticity index of 26%.
Classify the soil according to USCS.

Answer
PROBLEM 13
The table below shows the laboratory results of the
sieve analysis of a sample. Plot the grain size curve
of the soil in the attached figure. The soil has a
liquid limit of 35% and plasticity index of 26%.
Classify the soil according to USDA.

Answer
PROBLEM 14
The table below shows the laboratory results of the
sieve analysis of a sample. Plot the grain size curve
of the soil in the attached figure. The soil has a
liquid limit of 35% and plasticity index of 26%.
Classify the soil according to AASHTO.

Answer