THE MITOTIC CELL

CYCLE
This part:
• deals with the structure of chromosomes and their role in cell division by mitosis.
• describes the stages of the cell cycle;
• explains how the nucleus divides into two genetically identical nuclei
• explains the significance of mitosis, telomeres and stem cells.
• outlines how uncontrolled cell division can lead to cancer.
Review: CELL STRUCTURE_ Generalised Animal Cell, p.14

Description:
• Eukaryotic
• Large central
nucleus
• Many organelles
• Large cytoplasm
• Complex Golgi
apparatus
• Centrosome and
microtubules
• Irregular shape
Review: CELL STRUCTURE _ Cell vacuole in plant cells

• Pigments
• Enzymes
• Sugars
• other organic
compounds
(including some
waste
products)
• mineral salts
• Oxygen
• carbon dioxide
Review: CELL STRUCTURE _ Nucleus
Structure:
1. Nuclear
membrane/
envelope
2. Nuclear pores
3. Nucleolus
4. Chromatin / DNA
5. Nucleoplasm
DNA – double helix makes up chromatin
Chromatin contain
genes which are
organised sequences
of DNA bases.

Genes can control

expression of
characteristics in an
organism by
determining the
synthesis of proteins or
polypeptides
Forms: Euchromatin and heterochromatin
How is
euchromatin
different from
heterochromatin
in the
electromicrograph
of the palisade
mesophyll cell
shown in the
figure?
 Euchromatin versus Heterochromatin
• Contains loosely coiled/ packed • Contains more tightly coiled/
DNA hence very thin and packed DNA hence thick and
invisible in the nucleus more visible;

• More in chromatin in a non- • More in chromosomes during

dividing cell (interphase) nuclear division

• Contains mostly active genes • contains mostly inactive genes

• stains light due to loose packing • stains dense / dark due to tight
of DNA in it packing of DNA in it
Chromatin different from Chromosome !!

Both are thread-like structures made up of DNA. Both contain genes. Both found in cell nucleus . . .
CHROMATIN versus CHROMOSOME
• Chromatin:
• Loose - densely coiled thin thread-like structures in the
nucleus of a eukaryotic cell just before cell division
(interphase); invisible to the naked eye
• Chromosome: [chroma: coloured; soma: body]
• Densely coiled thick / condensed thread-like structures
each containing a pair of chromatids attached at the
centromere; visible as the cell begins to divide
Chromosome is ‘condensed chromatin’ hence visible during cell division; more thickening, more density
 Chromatin versus Chromosome
• Contains more loosely coiled/ packed
DNA (euchromatin) hence very thin and
invisible in the nucleus;
• Each chromatin is a single chromatid
thread – 1 DNA molecule
• Contains mostly active genes (since gene
expression is necessary in a non-dividing
cell)
• It stains light due to loose packing/ more
euchromatin than heterochromatin
• Present in non-dividing cell (interphase)
• Contains more tightly coiled/ packed DNA
(heterochromatin) hence thick and visible
in the nucleus;
• Each chromosome is made up of a pair of
chromatids – 2 DNA molecules
• Contains mostly inactive genes (since gene
expression is not necessary during cell
division)
• It stains dark/ dense due to tight packing/
more heterochromatin than euchromatin
• Present only during cell division
5.1a CHROMOSOME
STRUCTURE Describe the structure of a
chromosome
• Simple approach

• Make large, clear pencil

drawing of structure as
shown aside

• Attach descriptive labels

as exemplified in genes
and centromere

• This earns you full marks

“A picture is worth a
thousand words”, Confucius
What can you
comment about the
chromosome
number in different
species?

• Different/ varies
• Not an indicator
of complexity of
an organism
• Same for some
species
The Human genome just before cell division
Describe the structure of
chromosomes in the human genome
• 46 chromosomes
• Different lengths/ heights
• Each chromosome is a pair
of chromatids attached at
the centromere
• 23 homologous pairs of
chromosomes
Description of chromosome structure
The structure of a single chromosome contains:

• A pair of chromatids joined at the centromere

• Several genes at different locations (loci)
• Centromere along the chromosome length
• Telomeres at the ends of each chromatid
 Description of chromosome structure
• A pair of chromatids
• Each chromatid is a double-stranded DNA molecule bound to histone
proteins
• Before the cell begins to divide, this DNA molecule replicates producing
another double-stranded molecule / chromatid hence the two
chromatids attached to the centromere.
• Gene:
• is a length of DNA that codes for a particular protein or polypeptide
chain. Genes are sequence of base pairs which carry genetic information
• Genes occur in varieties called alleles; alternative forms of a gene
How DNA wounds on the histone proteins
• Each DNA molecule is only 2 nm wid
• Total length of DNA in the 46
chromosomes of an adult human cell
is about 1.8 metres
• Packed into a nucleus only 6 μm in
diameter. (18 km length of string into
a ball only 6 cm in diameter)
• The DNA is wound around the
outside of these histone proteins
which prevent it from getting tangled
up into knots.
• The combination of DNA and
proteins is called chromatin.
 How DNA is packed in a chromosome
•Chemically, histone are basic so they can interact easily with DNA, which
is acidic.
•The solution to the packing problem is controlled coiling of the DNA on
histone proteins
•DNA coils can themselves be coiled to form ‘supercoils’; these may then
be looped, coiled or folded in precise ways which are very complex.
•The basic unit of DNA folding in a chromosome is a nucleosome - a
cylindrical shape, about 11 nm wide by 6 nm long, made up of 8 histone
molecules.
 How nucleosomes pack DNA in a x-some
• The DNA is wrapped around the outside of the cylinder, making 1⅔
turns (equivalent to 147 base pairs) before linking to the next
nucleosome.
• Linker DNA, 53 base pairs in length is also held in place by a histone
molecule.
• Nucleosomes line up like a string of beads to form a fiber 10 nm wide.

• This string can be further coiled and supercoiled, involving some non-
histone proteins as illustrated in the next slide.
How nucleosomes + Linker DNA = X-some

8 histones [octamer of core histones] form a nucleosome on which 1.67 turns of DNA is wound
to form a ‘small DNA pack’. Linker DNA (also held by histones) joins several lined ‘small DNA
packs’ to form a fiber which is coiled and super folded to make a chromosome (see next slide)
Process of DNA packing to form a chromosome

Chromatin (loose-pack) and Chromosome (dense-pack). Is the difference due to packing of same DNA in each?
Main function of chromosomes
• Chromosomes tightly pack together all the genetic/
hereditary information of the cell which makes it easier to
separate it into two new cells during mitosis;
• This ensures that each newly formed cell has exactly the same
amount and type/ nature of genetic material as the parent
cell;
• which ensures that the diploid number of chromosomes in a
species is maintained in every cell division.
Revision Questions
• Describe the structure of a chromosome
• How is a chromosome different from chromatin?
• What are homologous chromosomes?
• State the role of each of the following part of the
chromosome structure:
(a) genes
(b) centromere
(c) telomeres