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TECHNIQUES IN
INVERTERS
Advanced Power Electronics and Applications
ECEG 6309
Organization
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-step VSI
B. Pulse Width Modulated VSI
II. PWM Techniques
A. Sine PWM
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang)
C. Space Vector PWM
III. References
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (1)
Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter
V3= [0 1 0] V4= [0 1 1]
V5= [0 0 1] V6= [1 0 1]
V1= [1 0 0]
V2= [1 1 0]
Fig. 3 Six inverter voltage vectors for six-step voltage source inverter.
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (4)
Line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca) and line to neutral voltages (Van, Vbn, Vcn)
Line to line voltages
Vab = VaN - VbN
Phase voltages
Fig. 4 Waveforms of line to neutral (phase) voltages and line to line voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (5)
. Amplitude of line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)
3 4 Vdc 6
(Vab )1 (rms) Vdc 0.78Vdc
2 2
where, h 6n 1 (n 1, 2, 3,.....)
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (6)
Objective of PWM
Reduction of harmonics
Disadvantages of PWM
Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency
9
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (2)
vcontrol peak of (V A0 )1
m ,
vtri Vdc / 2
where, (VA0 )1 : fundamenta l frequecny component of VA0
11
II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (1)
Three-phase inverter
12
II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (2)
Three-phase sine PWM waveforms
vtri vcontrol_A vcontrol_B vcontrol_C
Frequency of vtri and vcontrol
Frequency of vtri = fs
VA0
Frequency of vcontrol = f1
VB0
where, fs = PWM frequency
f1 = Fundamental frequency
VC0
Inverter output voltage
VAB
When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2
VBC
When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2
13
II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (3)
14
II. PWM METHODS
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (1)
15
II. PWM METHODS
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (2)
16
II. PWM METHODS
B. Hysteresis (Bang-bang) PWM (3)
Advantages
Drawbacks
18
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (2)
S1 through S6 are the six power transistors that shape the ouput voltage
When an upper switch is turned on (i.e., S1, S3 or S5 is “1”), the corresponding lower
switch is turned off (i.e., S4, S6 or S2 is “0”)
Eight possible combinations of on and off patterns for the three upper transistors (S 1, S3, S5)
Line to line voltage vector [Vab Vbc Vca]t in terms of pole voltages
Vab 1 1 0 Va
V V 0 1 1 Vb , where switching variable vector [a b c]t
bc dc
Vca 1 0 1 Vc
Line to neutral (phase) voltage vector [V an Vbn Vcn]t in terms of pole voltages
Van 2 1 1 Va
V 1 V 1 2 1 Vb
bn 3 dc
Vcn 1 1 2 Vc
19
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (3)
20
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM
010 110
[0 0 0]
[1 1 1]
[1 0 0]
[1 1 0] 011 100
[0 1 0]
[0 1 1] 001 101
The active and zero switching states can be represented by active and zero space
vectors, respectively. A typical space vector diagram for the two-level inverter is
shown in Fig. right, where the six active vectors V1 to V6 form a regular hexagon with
six equal sectors (I to VI). The zero vector V0 lies on the center of the hexagon
Each sector (1 to 6): 60 degrees
09/30/2020
Cont…
• To derive the relationship between the
space vectors and switching states, refer to
the two-level inverter in Figure 13.
• Assuming that the operation of the
inverter is three-phase balanced, we have
vAO(t) + vBO(t) + vCO(t) = 0
• where vAO, vBO, and vCO are the
instantaneous load phase voltages.
• From mathematical point of view, one of
the phase voltages is redundant since
given any two phase voltages, the third
one can be readily calculated ( x+y+z=0 is
equation of a plane). Figure 13 : Simplified two-level inverter for high-power applications
09/30/2020
Transformations of the Space Vectors
= –
Vβ
= –)
Vα
(b)
(a)
Cont…
Space Vectors: Transformation
The coefficient 2/3 is somewhat arbitrarily chosen. The commonly used value is 2/3
or 2 / 3 . The main advantage of using 2/3 is that the magnitude of the two-phase
voltages will be equal to that of the three-phase voltages after the transformation.
A space vector can be generally expressed in terms of the two-phase voltages in the α-β plane
[0 0 0]
[1 1 1]
[1 0 0]
[1 1 0]
[0 1 0]
[0 1 1]
[0 0 1]
[1 0 1]
The zero vector has two switching states [PPP] and [OOO], one of which seems redundant. As will be seen later, the
redundant switching state can be utilized to minimize the switching frequency of the inverter or perform other useful
functions.
Note that the zero and active vectors do not move in space, and thus they are referred to as stationary vectors.
09/30/2020
Cont…
• the reference vector Vref in Fig. shown in slide #23 rotates in space at an angular velocity
• The angular displacement between Vref and the α-axis of the plane can be obtained by
• For a given magnitude (length) and position, Vref can be synthesized by three nearby
stationary vectors, based on which the switching states of the inverter can be selected and
gate signals for the active switches can be generated.
• When Vref passes through sectors one by one, different sets of switches will be turned on
or off.
• As a result, when Vref rotates one revolution in space, the inverter output voltage varies
one cycle over time.
The inverter output frequency corresponds to the rotating speed of Vref, while its output
09/30/2020 voltage can be adjusted by the magnitude of Vref.
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (9)
26
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (10)
Step 1. Determine Vα, Vβ, Vref, and angle (θ) V VA0 VB0 cos60 VC0 cos60
1 1
VA0 VB0 VC0
Coordinate transformation 2 2
: VA0 VB0VC0 to αβ
V 0 VB0 cos30 VC0 cos30
3 3
VB0 VC0
β axis 2 2
1 1 V
A0
Vβ 1
VB0 V 2 2
2
VB0
V
3 3 3
0 VC0
2 2
θ
Vα VA0 α axis V ref VdV2 α2 +V
Vqβ22
Vq
α tan 1 ( )ω
Θs t= 2πf s t
Vd
VC0
(where, f s fundamental frequency)
Fig. 13 Voltage Space Vector and its components in (α, β).
27
Step 2 : Dwell Time Calculation
• As mentioned earlier, the reference Vref can be synthesized by three stationary vectors.
• The dwell time for the stationary vectors essentially represents the duty-cycle time (on-state or off-
state time) of the chosen switches during a sampling period Ts of the modulation scheme.
• The dwell time calculation is based on ‘volt-second balancing’ principle, that is, the product of the
reference voltage Vref and sampling period Ts equals the sum of the voltage multiplied by the time
interval of chosen space vectors.
• Assuming that the sampling period Ts is sufficiently small, the reference vector Vref can be
considered constant during Ts. Under this assumption, Vref can be approximated by two adjacent
active vectors and one zero vector
where Ta, Tb, and T0 are the dwell times for the vectors V1, V2 and V0, respectively.
The space vectors in the above equation can be expressed as
Substituting this into the above equation and then splitting the resultant equation into
the real (α-axis) and imaginary (β -axis) components in the αβ – plane, we have
Solving the above equation together
with Ts = Ta + Tb + T0 yields
Fig:
3 Ts V ref n 1
Ta sin
Vdc 3 3
3 Ts V ref n
sin
Vdc 3
3 Ts V ref n n
sin cos cos sin
Vdc 3 3
3 Ts V ref n 1
Tb sin
Vdc 3
3 Ts V ref n 1 n 1
cos sin sin cos
Vdc 3 3
011 100 If this substituted in the index equation, gives the maximum
modulation index: ma,max = 1
from which the modulation index for the SVM scheme is in the
range of
001 101
09/30/2020
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (7)
24
II. PWM METHODS
C. Space Vector PWM (8)
Sine PWM
: Locus of the reference vector is the inside of a circle with radius of 1/2 V dc
25
Step 3. Determine Switching Sequence
• In general, the switching sequence design for a given Vref is not unique, but
it should satisfy the following two requirements for the minimization of the
device switching frequency:
(a) The transition from one switching state to the next involves only two
switches in the same inverter leg, one being switched on and the other
switched off.
(b) The transition for moving from one sector in the space vector
diagram to the next requires no or minimum number of switching.
• Figure in the next slide shows a typical seven-segment switching sequence
and inverter output voltage waveforms for in sector I, where is
synthesized by .
• The sampling period Ts is divided into seven segments for the selected
vectors
P stands for 1,
and O stands
for 0.
Let us now examine a case given in these Fig. where the vectors V1 and
Seven-segment switching sequence for Vref in sector I. V2 in lower Fig. are swapped. Some switching state transitions, such as
the transition from [OOO] to [PPO], are accomplished by turning on and off
four switches in two inverter legs simultaneously. As a consequence, the
total number of switching's during the sampling period increases from six in
the previous case to ten. Obviously, this switching sequence does not
satisfy the design requirement and thus should not be adopted.
It is interesting to note that the waveforms of VAB in Figs(shown in the left).
produced by two different switching sequences seem different, but they are
essentially the same. If these two waveforms are drawn for two or more
consecutive sampling periods, we will notice that they are identical except
for a small time delay (Ts/2). Since Ts is much shorter than the period of the
inverter fundamental frequency, the effect caused by the time delay is
negligible.
Table shown above gives the seven-segment switching sequences for Vref
residing in all six sectors. Note that all the switching sequences start and
end with switching state [OOO], which indicates that the transition for Vref
Undesirable seven-segment switching sequence moving from one sector to the next does not require any switching. The
09/30/2020 switching sequence design requirement (b) is satisfied.
Spectrum Analysis (SVM)
180 degree
even-order harmonics
09/30/2020 41
Cont…
• Examining the two switching sequences in Fig. in the above slide, we can find
out that the type-A sequence starts and ends with [OOO] while the type-B
sequence commences and finishes with [PPP].
• The waveforms of VAB generated by both sequences seem different. However,
they are essentially the same except for a small time delay (Ts/2), which can
be clearly observed if these two waveforms are drawn for two or more
consecutive sampling periods.
• To make the three-phase line-to-line voltage half-wave symmetrical, type-A
and type-B switching sequences can be alternatively used.
• In addition, each sector in the space vector diagram is divided into two
regions as shown in Fig. in the following slide.
• Type-A sequence is used in the non-shaded regions, while type-B sequence
is employed in the shaded regions.
• The detailed switching sequence arrangements as well are given in Table
Compared with the harmonic spectrum given in Fig. unmodified SVM, the
magnitude of the 5th and 7th harmonics in VAB is increased while the THD
essentially remains the same.