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x R( x )
x
R( x)
R( x) = x + u( x)
Reference material in D Material distorted to new
dimensions described by positions R(x)
a continuum of mass
points x. Neighbors of
¶ Ri
L ia = = di a + hi a
points do not change ¶ xa
under distortion Cauchy deformation tensor
hi a = ¶ a u i
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Linear and Nonlinear Elasticity
Linear: Small deformations – near 1
Nonlinear: Large deformations – >>1
Why nonlinear?
• Systems can undergo large deformations – rubbers,
polymer networks , …
• Non-linear theory needed to understand properties of
statically strained materials
• Non-linearities can renormalize nature of elasticity
• Elegant an complex theory of interest in its own right
Why now:
• New interest in biological materials under large strain
• Liquid crystal elastomers – exotic nonlinear behavior
• Old subject but difficult to penetrate – worth a fresh look
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Deformations and Strain
Complete information about shape of body in R(x)= x +u(x);
u= const. – translation no energy.
No energy cost unless u(x) varies in space.
For slow variations, use the Cauchy deformation tensor
L i a = di a + ¶ a u i = di a + hi a
d 3R = det L d 3x
%
det L = 1 : No volume change
%
æL - 1/ 2 0 ö
0÷
çç ÷
çç ÷
L= ç 0 L - 1/ 2
0÷
÷
÷
% çç ÷
÷
çç 0
è 0 L÷
÷
ø
Volume preserving stretch along z-axis
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Simple shear strain Constant Volume, but note
stretching of sides
Note: is not symmetric
originally along x or y.
æ1 L ö
÷
L = ççç ÷
÷
% çè0 1 ø÷
æ1 0ö
÷
L = ççç ÷
÷
Rotate
% çèL 1ø÷
Not equivalent to
æ 1 + L2 L ö
çç ÷
÷
L = çç ÷
÷
% çç L 2÷
è 1+ L ÷
ø
U U T
1 2 0
0 1 2
dR 2 - dx 2 = 2u a bdx adx b
¶ Ri
L ia = = di a + hi a
uis invariant under rotations ¶ xa
in the target space but u = 21 ( LT L - d) » 21 ( h + hT )
transforms as a tensor under % %% % % %
rotations in the reference
space. It contains no
(
u a b = 21 ¶ a u b + ¶ b u a + ¶ a u k ¶ a u k )
information about orientation Symmetric!
of object.
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elastic energy
The elastic energy should be invariant under rigid rotations
in the target space: if is a function of u
F x f (u )
D
1
2 d
Isotropic system
K ( )
Uniaxial (n = unit vector along uniaxial direction)
K C 1n n n n C 2 (n n T n n
T
)
C 3
T
T 21 C 4 (
T
T
T
T
)
14 C 5 (n n
T
n n
T
n n
T
n n
T
)
f = f ( L ) = f (U LV - 1
) Invariant under
- 1 R( x) ® UR(Vx)
f = f (u ) = f (V uV )
= shear modulus;
2 2
= Bu1
2
2
aa + mT ru% - C T ru% + D ( T ru% )
2 3
B = bulk modulus
+ C 4u nt2 + C 5u n2z ;
xa = (xn , x z )
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Force and stress I
fi i F ext d D x fi u i d D x i u i
external force density – vector in target space. The
stress tensor i is mixed. This is the engineering or 1st
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor = force per area of
reference space. It is not necessarily symmetric!
dF ¶f du a b ( x ¢)
- = òd x¢
D
= fi = - ¶ a s i a
du i ( x) ¶ u a b ( x ¢) dui ( x)
du a b ( x ¢) ¶f II
= 1
(L ia ¶ ¢ + L i b ¶ a¢)d( x - x ¢) s ia = L ib º L i b s ba
du i ( x)
2 b ¶ u ba
d d R = det L d d x ¶ ¶ Ri ¶
% ¶a = = = L ia Ñ i
¶ xa ¶ x a ¶ Ri
C 1 I T 1
s =
ij
s ia L a j = L i a s aIIb LTa j
det L det L
% %
C 1 Symmetric as required
s = L s II LT
% det L %% %
%
L = L( LT L )- 1/ 2 ( LT L )1/ 2 º Q M 1/ 2
% % T
%% %% %%- 1/ 2
M = L L = (d + 2u ); Q = L M
% %% % % % %%
OO T = L M - 1/ 2 ( L M - 1/ 2 )T = L M - 1/ 2M - 1/ 2 LT = L ( LT L )- 1 LT = d
%% %% %% %% % % %% % % %
M is symmetric and depends on u only.
% %
O is an orthogonal, unimodular rotation matrix
%
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Target-reference conversion
The rotation matrix O converts target-space
%
vectors E i to reference-space vectors E%a and vice-versa
If L is symmetric, Oi a = di a .
%
Oi a » di a + 21 (¶ a u i - ¶ i u a )
» di a - ei a k Wk
100 Vimentin
plat
Actin
Max stretch:
G or G'
Fibrin L()/L~1.13 at
NF 45 deg to
10 normal
0.01 0.1 1
Strain
3 é 3R 2 ù 1
P (R ) = exp ê- ú R 0i R 0 j = dij Nb2
2p Nb 2
êë 2Nb ú
2 3
û
R 02 = Nb2
Average is over the end-to-end separation in a
random walk: random direction, Gaussian magnitude
1 æ 2 2ö
ff = = n bT ççL + ÷
÷
2 è Lø
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Rubber: stress -strain
¶ ¶ (AR LR ff ) ¶f
fz = (V ff ) = = AR AR= area in
¶L ¶ L LR ¶L
reference space
fz ¶ ff æ 1ö
s =e
= = nT ççL - ÷
2÷
Engineering stress AR ¶L è L ø
Physical Stress fz ¶f æ 2 1ö
s = = L = nT ççL - ÷
÷
A = AR/ = Area in A ¶L è Lø
target space æ
s nT çç(1 + g )2 - 1 ö÷
Y = = ÷
÷ ~ 3nT
Y=Young’s modulus g g çè 1+ gø
( L R 0 )i
= n t i ( L R 0 )R 0 j = n t ( L R 0 ) % R 0j
% % | LR0 |
e ref
%
s ijdS j = s ijdS j dV (R )
Central force t ( R ) =
dS i = det L L -ji 1dS jref dR
Physical n t (L R 0 )
Cauchy Stress: s ij = % L ik R 0k L jl R 0l
det L | L R 0 |
Symmetric % % R0
2
| t(s ) |= 1; t(s ) = ( t ^ (s ), 1- | t ^ (s ) | )
dR dR t = unit tangent
= v(s ) t(s ) = v
ds ds v = stretch
1 é ædt ö
2 ù
H = ò ds êk çç ^ ÷
÷ + v t | t | 2
+ K (v - 1) 2ú
2 ê çè ds
ë ø÷ ^ ú
û
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Length-force expressions
L(,K) = equilibrium length at given and K
æ t ö
L ( t , K ) = çç1 + ÷ ÷L 0[1 - g(j ( t , K ))];
è Kø
1 L ¥
1
1 2
g(j ) = 2 | t ^ | = 2 0
å 2
p Lp n = 1 n + j
;
L 0 p j cot h( p j ) - 1
= 2
Lp pj
L20 æ t ö k
j (t , K ) = t çç1 + ÷÷ ; Lp =
k p2 è Kø k BT
Strain/strain8
Nematic
Smectic-C
2. Tanaka gels with hard-rod
dispersion
3. Anisotropic membranes
Courtesy of
Eugene Terentjev
300% strain
Terentjev
u%a b = u a b - 1
3 da b u gg
(
u%a b = S n a n b - 1
3 da b )
u0 = 1
2 (L T
0 L 0 - d)
L0 = d + 2u 0 Direction of n0 is
arbitrary
u%a b = u%0a b Symmetric-
Traceless
= Y(n a0n b0 - 1
3 da b ) part u a a ~ Y2
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Strain of New Phase
R i ( x) = L 0ij x j + du i ( x) u’ is the strain relative
to the new state at
= x i¢+ u i¢( x ¢)
points x’
¶ Ri ¶ R i ¶ x k¢
L ij = = = L ik¢L 0kj
¶xj ¶ x k¢ ¶ x j
du = u - u 0 u is the deviation of
% % % the strain relative to the
= 21 ( LT L - L T0 L 0 ) original reference frame R
%% %% from u0
T
= L0u ' L0
%%%
u is linearly proportional
u ' = 2 ( L ¢ L ¢- d) » 2 ( h ¢+ h ¢ ) to u’
1 T 1 T
% %
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elasticity of New Phase
Rotation of anisotropy
direction costs no energy
L 20||
r=
L 20^
u ' = (L )T - 1
0 (V u 0V - 1
- u 0) L - 1
0 u 'xz ~
(r - 1)
q
4 r
æ1 - cos 2q 1
r sin 2q ö
çç ÷
÷ C5=0 because of
= 4 (r - 1) ç 1
1
÷
çè r sin 2q - r ( 1 - cos 2q) ÷
1
ø rotational
÷
invariance
fel = 21 C 1u zz¢ + C 2u zz¢u nn
2
¢ + 21 C 3u nn
¢ u nn
¢ This 2nd order expansion
is invariant under all U
+ C 4u nt¢ u nt¢ + C 5u z¢nu z¢n but only infinitesimal V
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Soft Extensional Elasticity
æ1 - cos 2q 1
sin 2q ö
ç r ÷
÷
u = 14 (r - 1) çç 1 ÷
çè r sin 2q - 1 ÷
r ( 1 - cos 2q ) ø
÷
1
u zz = - u xx Strain uxx can be converted to a
r zero energy rotation by
1 developing strains uzz and uxz
u xz = u xx (r - 1 - 2u xx )
2r until uxx =(r-1)/2
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Frozen anisotropy: Semi-soft
System is now uniaxial – why not simply use uniaxial elastic
energy? This predicts linear stress-stain curve and misses
lowering of energy by reorientation:
f = 21 C 1u zz2 + C 2u zz u nn + 21 C 3u nn
2
+ C 4u nt2 + C 5u n2z
Model Uniaxial system:
Produces harmonic uniaxial f h (u ) = f (u ) - hu zz
energy for small strain but has
nonlinear terms – reduces to f (u) : isotropic
isotropic when h=0
æ - 2u xz u xx - u zz ö
¢
Rotation u ® u = u + q ç ç ÷
÷
ççu xx - u zz 2 u ÷
è xz ÷
ø
f (u ¢) = f (u ) - h (u zz + 2qu xz )
h
Second Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor.