Biopotential Electrodes

• The interface function between the body and the electronic measuring
apparatus is carried out by biopotential electrodes.

• Biopotential electrodes must have the capability of conducting a current across

the interface

• Electrode actually carries out a transducing function.

• The current is carried in the body by ions, whereas it is carried in the electrode
and its lead wire by electrons.

• Thus, the electrode must serve as a transducer to change ionic current into an
electronic current.
 Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
• The net current that crosses the interface, passing from the electrode to that of
electrolyte, consists of:
1) Electrons moving in a direction opposite to that of the current in the
electrode .
2) Cations moving in the same direction as the current.
3) Anions moving in a direction opposite to that of the current in the
electrolyte.

• There are no free electrons in the electrolyte and no free cations / anions in the
electrode.

• The transfer of charge between these carriers is happening because of the

chemical reaction represented in general by the following equation:

• Where n is the valence of C and m is the valence of A.

• The electrode is made up of some atoms of the same material as the cations
Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
 Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
• The atoms in the electrode at the interface can become oxidized to form a
cation and one or more free electrons.

• The cation is discharged into the electrolyte; the electron remains as a charge
carrier in the electrode.

• An anion coming to the electrode-electrolyte interface can be oxidized to a

neutral atom, giving off one or more free electrons to the electrode.

• The reactions are reversible, i.e reduction reaction can occur as well.

• When no current is crossing the electrode-electrolyte interface, the rate of

oxidation equals the rate of reduction, the net transfer is zero.

• When the current flow is from electrode to electrolyte, the oxidation reaction
dominates.

• When the current is in the opposite direction, the reduction reaction dominates.
 Half-Cell Potential
• When a metal comes in contact with the solution containing ions of that metal,
the reaction represented by following equation begins immediately.

• The local concentration of cations in the solution at the interface changes, which
affects the anion concentration.

• The net result is that neutrality of charge is not maintained in this region.

• Thus the electrolyte surrounding the metal is at a different electric potential from
the rest of the solution, is called Half-Cell potential.
 Half-Cell Potential
• A half-cell is a structure that contains a conductive electrode and a surrounding
conductive electrolyte separated by a naturally occurring Helmholtz double layer.

• Chemical reactions within this

layer momentarily pump electric
charges between the electrode
and the electrolyte, resulting in a
potential difference (Half-Cell
Potential) between the electrode
and the electrolyte.
 Half-Cell Potential
• Measurement of half-cell potential of an electrode is impossible as a connection
between the electrolyte and one terminal of potential measuring apparatus cannot be
provided.

• Because the second electrode (connected between the electrolyte and the measuring
apparatus) also has a half –cell potential.

• The resulting measurement will be the difference between the half-cell potential of
the first and that of the second electrode.

• Hydrogen electrode is defined as having a half-cell potential of zero under conditions

that are readily achievable in the laboratory.

• The half-cell potentials of all the other electrode materials are measured with respect
to this electrode.
Half-Cell Potentials of Common Electrode Materials
 Polarization
• If there is a current exists between the electrode and the electrolyte, the observed
half-cell potential is altered.

• The difference is due to polarization of the electrode.

• The difference between the observed half-cell potential and the equilibrium zero-
current half-cell potential is known as the over potential or polarization potential.

• Three basic mechanisms contribute to this phenomenon, and the overpotential can be
separated into three components:
• The ohmic potential
• It is the direct result of the resistance of the electrolyte.
• It is the voltage drop along the path of the current in the electrolyte.
• The drop in voltage is proportional to the current and the resistivity of the
electrolyte.
• The resistance itself can vary as a function of the current.
• Thus the potential is not linearly related to the current.

• The Concentration potential

• It results from the changes in the distribution of ions in the electrolyte in the
vicinity of the electrode-electrolyte interface.
 Polarization
• This change results in a different half cell potential at the electrode. This is
the concentration overpotential.
• Activation Overpotential
• The charge transfer process involved in the oxidation-reduction reaction are
not entirely reversible.
• In order for the metal atoms to be oxidized to form metal ions that are
capable of going into solution, the atoms must overcome an energy barrier.
This barrier is called activation energy.
• When there is a current between the electrode and the electrolyte, either
oxidation or reduction predominates.
• Hence the height of the energy barrier depends on the direction of the
current.
• This difference in the energy appears as a difference in voltage between the
electrode and the electrolyte, known as activation potential.

• Thus the net overpotential, Vp = Vr + Vc + Va

 Polarizable and Non-polarizable electrodes
• Classified based on what happens to an electrode when a current passes between it and the
electrolyte.
• Perfectly polarizable electrodes
• are those in which no actual charge crosses the electrode-electrolyte interface when a
current is applied.
• The current crossing the interface is the displacement current and the electrode
behaves as though it were a capacitor
• Perfectly non-polarizable electrodes
• are those in which current passes freely across the electrode-electrolyte interface,
requiring no energy to make the transition.
• Thus there are no overpotentials for perfectly non-polarizable electrodes.

• Neither of these two electrodes can be fabricated

• Some practical electrodes can come close to acquiring their characteristics.

• Electrodes made of noble metals such as platinum comes closest to behaving as perfectly
polarizable electrodes. Majority of over potential is of concentration overpotential.

• Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) is a practical electrode that approaches the characteristics of a perfectly
nonpolarizable electrode and can be easily fabricated in the laboratory.
Body Surface Electrode
 Metal Plate Electrode
• One of the most frequently used forms of biopotential electrodes is the
metal-plate electrode.

• It consists of a metallic conductor in contact with the skin.

• An electrolyte soaked pad or gel is used to establish and maintain the

contact.

• Two types

• Cylindrical Type

• Disk type
Metal Plate Electrodes
 Limb Electrode (Cylindrical type)
• Used with electrocardiography

• Flat metal plate bent into a cylindrical segment

• A terminal is placed on its outside surface near one end is used to attach the lead wire to the
electrocardiograph

• A post, placed on the same side near the center, is used to connect a rubber strap to the
electrode and hold it in place on an arm or leg.

• Made of German Silver (a nickel-silver alloy)

• The concave surface is covered with electrolyte gel.

 Metal Disk Electrodes
• Used as a chest electrode for recording ECG or in cardiac monitoring for long term recording.

• Consists of a large disk of plastic foam material with a silver plated disk on one side attached to a
silver-plated snap similar to that used on clothing in the center on the other side

• May or may not have an electrolytically deposited layer of AgCl on its contacting surface.

• Covered with a layer of electrolyte gel and the pressed against the patient’s chest wall

• Electrode side of the foam is covered with an adhesive material that is compatible with the skin.

• Also fabricated from metal foils (primarily silver foil) and are applied as single-use disposable
electrodes.
 Metal Disk Electrodes

• In recording EMGs

• Stainless steel, platinum or gold plated disks are used to minimize the chance that
electrode will enter into chemical reaction with perspiration or the gel.

• Produce polarizable electrodes.

• Motion artifacts can be a problem with active patients.

• It is the momentary change in the half-cell potential of the electrode-

electrolyte interface due to the mechanical movement of the electrode with
respect to the electrolyte.

• Smaller in diameter compared to electrodes used in ECGs

Metal Disk Electrode
 Body Surface Electrode – 2
Suction Electrode
• Modification of metal-plate electrode that require no
straps or adhesives for holding it in place

• Frequently used in precordial (chest) leads

• Can be placed at a particular location

• Consists of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that

makes contact with the skin at its base.

• A Lead wire is attached to the metal cylinder

• A rubber suction bulb fits over its other base.

• Electrolyte gel is placed over the contacting surface.

• The bulb is squeezed and placed on the chest wall and then the bulb is released and applies suction
against the skin, holding the electrode assembly in place.

• Suction & pressure of the contact surface against the skin creates irritation

• Small contacting area with a large overall size

• Higher source impedance compared to other metal type surface electrodes.

 Body Surface Electrode – 3
Floating Electrodes
• Offer a suitable technique to reduce motion
artifacts

• The actual electrode / metal element is

recessed in a cavity so that it does not come in
contact with the skin itself.

• Element is surrounded by electrolyte gel in the

cavity

• The cavity doesn not move with respect to the

metal

• Thus it does not produce any mechanical

movement of the electrode-electrolyte
interface layer of charge.

• In practice the electrode is filled with electrolyte gel and then attached to the skin surface by
means of a double-sided adhesive tape ring.

• The electrode element can be a disk made of a metal such as silver coated with AgCl.
Body Surface Electrode – 3
Flexible Electrodes
 Internal Electrodes

• Used within the body to detect biopotentials

• The electrode itself or the lead wire crosses the skin (percutaneous electrodes)

• Can be entirely placed inside (internal electrodes)

• For implanted electronics circuits such as radio telemetry transmitter.

• Entirely different from body surface electrodes

• They do not have to contend with the electrolyte-skin interface and its associated
limitations.

• The skin itself is the electrolyte for the electrode-electrolyte interface.

• No electrolyte gel is required to maintain this interface, because extracellular fluid is

present.
 Needle Electrodes
• Consists of a solid needle, usually made of stainless steel, with a sharp point.

• The shank of the needle is insulated with a coating such as an insulating varnish; only the tip is
left exposed.

• A lead wire is attached to the other end of the needle, and the joint is encapsulated in a plastic
hub to protect it.

• Frequently used in electromyography.

• Principally for acute measurements, because their stiffness and size make them uncomfortable
for long term implantation.

• When it is placed in particular muscle, it obtains an EMG from that muscle acutely and can be
then removed.

• The electrode consists of stainless steel hypodermic needles placed subcutaneously on each
limb.

• Lead wires with special connectors attached to the needle at the hub connects the electrodes
to the instrument.
 Needle Electrodes
• Coaxial needle electrode
• A shielded percutaneous electrode consists of a small-gage hypodermic needle that has
been modified by running an insulated fine wire down the center of its lumen and filling
the remainder of of the lumen with an insulating material such as resin.

• When the resin has set, the tip of the needle is filed to its original bevel, exposing an
oblique cross section of the central wire, which serves as the active electrode.

• The needle itself is connected to ground through a shield of a coaxial cable, thereby
extending the coaxial structure to its very lip.

• Bipolar coaxial needle electrode

• Two wires are placed within the lumen of the needle

• Connected differentially to be sensitive only to the electrical activity in the immediate

vicinity of the needle.
Needle Electrodes
Cross Sectional view of skin and muscle showing needle
electrode in place
 Schemes of Introducing electrodes into the skin

• A fine wire often made of stainless steel ranging in diameter 25 to 125 µm is insulated with an
insulating varnish to within a few millimeters of tip.

• It is bent back onto itself to form a J-shaped structure.

• The tip is introduced into the lumen of the needle.

• The needle is inserted through the skin into the muscle at the desired location to the desired
depth.

• It is then slowly withdrawn, leaving the electrode in place.

• The bent over portion of the wire serves as a barb holding the wire in place in the muscle.

• To remove the wire, a mild uniform force is applied to straighten out the barb is pulled out
through the wire’s track.
 Schemes of Introducing electrodes into the skin

• Wire electrodes chronically implanted in active muscles undergo a great amount of flexing as
the muscle moves
• Cause the wire to slip as it passes through the skin

• Increase irritation and risk of infection at this point.

• Helical electrode and lead wire

• Made from very fine insulated wire coiled into a tight helix of approximately 150µm
diameter that is placed in the lumen of the inserted needle.

• The uninsulated barb protrudes from the tip of the needle and is bent back along the
needle before insertion.

• Holds the wire in place when the needle is removed from the muscle.
 Microelectrodes
• To measure potential across the cell membrane

• Smaller in size with respect to the cell dimension

• Avoids causing serious injury

• Doesn’t change the cell’s behavior.

• Tip diameter ranging from approximately 0.05 to 10µm

• Formed from
• Solid-metal needles

• Or a Metal contained within or on the surface of a glass needle

• A glass micropipette having a lumen filled with an electrolytic solution.

• Two types
• Metal

• Micropipette
 Metal Microelectrodes
• Fine needle of strong metal
• Stainless Steel
• Platinum-iridium alloy
• Tungsten
• Compound tungsten carbide

• Insulated with an appropriate insulator up to its tip.

• Usually produced by electrolytic etching, using an electrochemical cell in which the metal
needle is the anode.

• The electric current etches the needle as it is slowly withdrawn from the electrolytic solution.

• The etched metal needle is then supported in a larger metallic shaft that is then insulated.
 Supported Metal Microelectrodes
• A strong insulating material (usually glass) that can be drawn to a fine point makes up the
basic support.

• A metal with good conductivity constitutes the contacting portion of the electrode.
 Micropipette Electrode
• Prepared from glass capillaries

• Glass Micropipette with the tip drawn out to the desired size (usually about 1µm) in diameter.
 Micropipette Electrode
• Prepared from glass capillaries

• Glass Micropipette with the tip drawn out to the desired size (usually about 1µm) in diameter.

• The central region of a piece of capillary tubing is heated to the softening point

• It is then rapidly stretched to produce the constriction

• Is then broken apart at the constriction to produce a pipette structure.

• Filled with an electrolyte solution frequently 3M KCL

• A Cap containing a metal electrode is then sealed to the pipette.

 Practical hints in using electrodes
• Any part of the lead wire that may be exposed to the electrolyte should be all of the same
material.

• A third material such as solder should not be used to connect the electrode to its lead unless it
is certain that this material will not be in contact with the electrolyte.

• Dissimilar metals should not be used in contact because their half cell potentials are different.

• Use same materials for each electrode for measuring differentials.

• Lead wires to the surface electrodes should be extremely flexible and strong

• Using a tapered region of insulation that gradually increases from the diameter of the wire to
one closer to that of the electrode often minimizes the problem of breakage at the point at
which the lead wire enter the electrode.