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Ecosystems
Figure 54.1
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Regardless of an ecosystem’s size
– Its dynamics involve two main processes:
energy flow and chemical cycling
• Energy is conserved
– But degraded to heat during ecosystem
processes
Microorganisms
and other
detritivores Secondary
consumers
Primary producers
Heat
Key
Figure 54.2
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Nutrients cycle within an ecosystem
Figure 54.3
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Concept 54.2: Physical and chemical factors
limit primary production in ecosystems
• Primary production in an ecosystem
– Is the amount of light energy converted to
chemical energy by autotrophs during a given
time period
• Only NPP
– Is available to consumers
60°N
30°N
Equator
30°S
60°S
South Pole
180° 120°W 60°W 0° 60°E 120°E 180°
Figure 54.5
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Primary Production in Marine and Freshwater
Ecosystems
• In marine and freshwater ecosystems
– Both light and nutrients are important in
controlling primary production
30 21
nd
I sla 19
ng Shinnecock
Lo 15 Bay
5
ay 11
4 th B Moriches Bay
at Sou
Coast of Long Island, New York. Gre
Atlantic Ocean
The numbers on the map indicate 2
the data collection stations.
Figure 54.6
Inorganic phosphorus
(millions of cells/mL)
7 Phosphate enriched
7
Phytoplankton
Unenriched control
(µg atoms/L)
Inorganic 24
Phytoplankton
4 4 18
3 3
12
2 2
1 1
6
0 0
2 4 5 11 30 15 19 21
Station number 0
Starting 2 4 5 11 30 15 19 21
Great Moriches Shinnecock
algal Station number
South Bay Bay Bay
density
(a) Phytoplankton biomass and phosphorus concentration (b) Phytoplankton response to nutrient enrichment
CONCLUSION Since adding phosphorus, which was already in rich supply, had no effect on
Nannochloris growth, whereas adding nitrogen increased algal density dramatically, researchers
concluded that nitrogen was the nutrient limiting phytoplankton growth in this ecosystem.
Figure 54.6
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Experiments in another ocean region
– Showed that iron limited primary production
Table 54.1
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The addition of large amounts of nutrients to
lakes
– Has a wide range of ecological impacts
Figure 54.7
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Primary Production in Terrestrial and Wetland
Ecosystems
• In terrestrial and wetland ecosystems climatic
factors
– Such as temperature and moisture, affect
primary production on a large geographic scale
2,000
Temperate forest
1,000 Mountain coniferous forest
300
(g dry wt/m2)
200
150 N only
100 Control
P only
50
0
June July August 1980
Plant material
eaten by caterpillar
200 J
67 J Cellular
100 J respiration
Feces
33 J
Tertiary
10 J
consumers
Secondary
100 J
consumers
Primary 1,000 J
consumers
Primary
producers 10,000 J
Figure 54.12a
Figire 54.12b
Tertiary consumers 3
Secondary consumers 354,904
Primary consumers 708,624
Primary producers 5,842,424
Figure 54.13
• Eating meat
– Is a relatively inefficient way of tapping
photosynthetic production
Secondary
consumers
Primary
consumers
Primary
producers
Figure 54.14
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Green World Hypothesis
• According to the green world hypothesis
– Terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little
plant biomass because they are held in check
by a variety of factors
Figure 54.15
Respiration,
Assimilation, decomposition, Burning
photosynthesis excretion of fossil fuels
Reservoir c Reservoir d
Inorganic Inorganic
materials materials
available Weathering, unavailable
as nutrients erosion as nutrients
Atmosphere, Minerals
soil, water Formation of in rocks
Figure 54.16 sedimentary rock
CO2 in atmosphere
Transport
over land Photosynthesis
Solar energy
Cellular
Net movement of respiration
water vapor by wind
Precipitation
Precipitation Evaporation over land
over ocean from ocean
Burning of
Evapotranspiration fossil fuels
from land and wood
Higher-level
Primary consumers
consumers
Percolation Carbon compounds Detritus
through in water
soil
Runoff and
groundwater
Decomposition
Figure 54.17
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Water moves in a global cycle
– Driven by solar energy
N2 in atmosphere
Rain
Assimilation Runoff
Denitrifying
bacteria Consumption
NO3−
Nitrogen-fixing Sedimentation
Plant uptake
bacteria in root
Decomposers of PO43−
nodules of legumes Nitrifying Soil
Nitrification bacteria
Ammonification Leaching
NH3 NH4+ NO2 −
Nitrogen-fixing Nitrifying
soil bacteria bacteria
Decomposition
Figure 54.17
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Most of the nitrogen cycling in natural
ecosystems
– Involves local cycles between organisms and
soil or water
Consumers
Producers
Decomposers
Nutrients
available
to producers
Abiotic
reservoir
Geologic
processes
Figure 54.18
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• The rates at which nutrients cycle in different
ecosystems
– Are extremely variable, mostly as a result of
differences in rates of decomposition
(b) One watershed was clear cut to study the effects of the loss
Figure 54.19b of vegetation on drainage and nutrient cycling.
60.0
40.0
20.0
(mg/L)
Completion of
4.0
tree cutting Control
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
1965 1966 1967 1968
(c) The concentration of nitrate in runoff from the deforested watershed was 60 times
Figure 54.19c greater than in a control (unlogged) watershed.
Figure 54.20
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Nitrogen is the main nutrient lost through
agriculture
– Thus, agriculture has a great impact on the
nitrogen cycle
4.6
4.3 4.6
4.3
4.6
4.1
4.3
4.6
Europe
Field pH
≥5.3
5.2–5.3
5.1–5.2
5.0–5.1
4.9–5.0
4.8–4.9
4.7–4.8
4.6–4.7
4.5–4.6
4.4–4.5
Figure 54.22 4.3–4.4
<4.3
Herring
gull eggs
124 ppm
Concentration of PCBs
Lake trout
4.83 ppm
Smelt
1.04 ppm
Zooplankton Phytoplankton
Figure 54.23 0.123 ppm 0.025 ppm
380 0.90
0.75
370
Temperature
0.60
360
0.45
350
0.30
340
CO2 0.15
330
0
320
−0.15
310 − 0.30
300 − 0.45
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 54.24
Figure 54.25
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
• The greenhouse effect is caused by
atmospheric CO2
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year (Average for the month of October)
Figure 54.26
O2
Chlorine O3
ClO
O2
3 Sunlight causes
Cl2O2 to break ClO
down into O2
and free Cl2O2 2 Two ClO molecules
chlorine atoms. react, forming
The chlorine chlorine peroxide (Cl2O2).
atoms can begin Sunlight
Figure 54.27 the cycle again.