LESSON 20

DOMINIC ANGELES, KANE ROSALES, JOHN

DENNIS SYQUI
What is health?
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and
social well-being and the absence of disease or
infirmity. The enjoyment of the highest attainable
standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of
every human being without distinction of race, religion,
political belief , economic or social condition.
World Health Organization(WHO)
A productive member of society must not only be
culturally healthy but most importantly, physically
healthy. One must ensure that his/her physiological
needs are attainable for him/her to strive to achieve
social goals.
Interestingly, culture also plays a part in health
science.
 Traditional and Alternative Health
Practices
In many societies like those in the Philippines,
culture plays a significant role in treating one’s health.
Traditional medicine where healing is based on
theories, traditional wisdom and belief, and ancient
practices, is widely practiced in many societies in the
world even up to this day.
 Healing in the past was closely linked to animistic
beliefs. These ideas have passed down from generation
to generation, so traditional health practices still exist at
present.
 Aside from traditional medicine, many people,
especially adults, use alternative medicine in taking
care of their health. In most household, whenever there
are emergency health needs, a member of the family
prepares a home remedy or alternative medicine.
Culture-Specific Syndromes, Prevention,
and Healing
Amid modernity and the developments in medical
science, traditional medicine still plays a role in the life
of the Filipinos, especially in rural areas ( or poverty-
stricken communities), where access to public health
clinics and hospitals is difficult or, to some extent,
expensive.
 Because of this, many Filipinos are unaware of the
causes of their illnesses. Their lack of knowledge about
science results in their belief in superstitions, linking
culture to health practices. In most rural societies,
people tend to attribute their illnesses to causes related
to culture.
Here are some of the health syndromes that
Filipinos attribute to their culture:
1.Usog
Perhaps the most popular culture-specific Filipino
syndrome is usog, or greeting that causes malady to a
person. A person who suffers usog is referred to as
nausog. This superstition varies, depending upon the
place where are grows up.
2. Kulam, Barang, Sapi, and others
In Philippine culture, sickness is also often
associated with supernatural forces. A person’s illness
may be regarded as a spell from a dark force that he/she
may have harmed or agitated.
A kulam is a spell cast by a warlock/witch upon
another person for whom he/she (or his/her client) feels
jealousy or wrath. The victim of kulam will experience
severe illness that may or may not lead to eventual
death. A worse version of kulam is barang, a curse that
involves the withdrawal of insects from the body’s
orifices.
 Similar to kulam and barang is sapi, or the literal
Filipino version of spirit possession. A person who
suffers from sapi may lose his/her consciousness, and
may do things that no ordinary human can do.
 Another culture-specific syndromes is the curse
infected by supernatural beings like engkanto, nuno, or
other evil spirits. It has been said that once an engkanto
becomes fond of a person, the victim will suffer from
mental malfunction and/or death. The power of nuno’s
curse, on the other hand, arises when a person harms a
punso or an ant’s nest, which is believed to be the home
of nunos. The person will experience the similar effects
as in kulam.
3. Lihi
The strong and obsessive craving of a pregnant
woman for a particular food which can result in her
child resembling the food she has craved for is called
lihi. Like usog, this is distinct Filipino syndrome
4. Pasma
another culture-related syndrome is pasma, or an
illness where a person experiences hand tremors, sweaty
palms, numbness, and pains. It is believed to be caused
by exposure to cold elements after engaging in a heated
environment or activity.
The origin of this Filipino concept is unknown.
However because of the lack of answers to the mystery,
this folk belief has been passed down to generations.
The primary practitioners of traditional medicines in the
Philippines are commonly referred to as the following:

1. Manghihilot - a traditional midwife or massage therapist who

treats muscle pains and assists in childbirths

2. Albularyo- a traditional healer who uses various healing

means like prayers, incantations, mysticism,
and herbalism, and is believed to posses
supernatural powers
3. Medico - an albularyo who integrates his/her little
knowledge of contemporary medicine in healing

4. Faith healer - a healer claims that he/she is bestowed

with divine power of God to heal patients with
strong faith in God

5. Exorcist - a priest (usually Catholic) specially

ordained to evict spiritual entitles out of a person
 Filipino American scholar Susan Montepio (1986)
found out that the health practices of Filipinos from
rural communities are more knowledgeable in
traditional healing techniques, while people from more
urbanized areas rely more on contemporary medicine.
However, there are still instances where both traditional
and contemporary health practices are used by Filipinos.
In other words , one’s health practices are reflective of
the cultural belief of the people.
Health as a Human Right
According to WHO, every human being has the right
to health. This means that the highest attainable
standards of physical and mental health , including
medical services, sanitation, adequate and nutritious
food, descent and affordable housing, healthy/humane
condition of work, and clean environment should be
with in reach of everyone. The right to health should be
promoted and protected by the government so that all
members of the society can benefit. Sufficient budgets
should be properly allocated to health services.
Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social,
and Cultural Rights mandates that
1. The States parties to the present covenant recognize the right of everyone to the
enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.

2. The steps to be taken by the states parties to the present covenant to

achieve the full realization of this right shall include those necessary for

(a)The provision for the reduction of the still birth-rate and of infant
mortality and for the healthy development of the child

(b)The improvement of all aspects of environmental and industrial

(c)The prevention treatment, and control of epidemic, endemic,

occupational and other diseases; and

(d)The creation of conditions which would assure to all medical service and
medical attention in the event of sickness
Article 24 of the convention on the Rights of the Child provides
that
1. States parties recognize the rights of the child to the enjoyment of the
highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of
illness and rehabilitation of health. States parties shall strive to ensure that
no child is deprived of his or her right of access to such health care
services.
2. States parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular,
shall take appropriate measures

(a) To diminish infant and child mortality:

(b) To ensure the prevision of necessary medical assistance and health care
to all children with emphasis on the development of primary health
care
(c) To combat disease and malnutrition, including those within the framework
of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of readily
available technology and trough the provision of adequate nutritious foods
and clean drinking-water, taking into consideration the dangers and risks of
environmental pollution.

(d) To ensure appropriate prenatal and postnatal health care for mothers;

(e) To ensure that all segments of society, in particular parents and children,
are informed, have access to education and are supported in the use of
basic knowledge of child health and nutrition, the advantages of
breastfeeding, hygiene and environmental sanitation and the prevention of
accidents; and

(f) To develop preventive health care, guidance for parents and family
planning, education and services.
3. States parties shall take all effective and appropriate measures
with a view to abolishing traditional practices prejudicial to the
health of children.

4. States parties undertake to promote and encourage

international cooperation with a view to achieving progressively
the full realization of the right recognized in the present article.
In this regard, particular account shall be taken of the needs of
developing countries.
Republic Act No. 7305
CHAPTER 6 SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION
 LESSON 21
STRATIFICATION
 Social Stratification is the structured and
hierarchical ranking of individuals based on their
family, occupation, income, wealth, and (social or
political) power. For sociologist, it is the patterned
inequality in society that is due to the unequal access to
wealth, privileges, and power.
 The members are divided into social classes or sets of
people sharing similar socioeconomic status. Generally,
there are three classes in every society, the upper class,
consisting of the wealthy businessmen, big politicians, and
the like; the middle class, or the ordinary and socially
underprivileged individuals.
 Social Stratification or classification is universal;
this means permeates through all societies in the world.
Even groups, such as school and families, are stratified.
It also an instrument to pass on social inequality from
one generation to the next, thereby perpetuating the
social hierarchy.
Equality vs. Equity

Equality means sameness. It is the state in a society

where people enjoy the same rights, social status, and
other privileges. It promotes fairness and justice,
unfortunately however, it cannot be thoroughly felt by
everyone.
 If equality pertains to sameness, then equity stands
for fairness. It is the quality where diversity is
recognized and people are provided with the things that
they need in the society. Contextualizing in the give
example , it is giving two persons two sets of shoes that
fit both of them.
 Functionalist View of Social
Stratification
Societies needs to distribute its limited resources, such
as economic and political power among its members.
However , equal distribution of resources is impossible,
for the members do not share equal skills and
contributions for the development of the society. In this
record, motivation becomes the key reason why society
has social stratification.
 According to sociologist Kingsley davis and
Wilbert moore (1945), when people are properly
motivated, they tend to study and work harder to fill the
well sought positions in the society. They have
classified motivation into two levels: to instill in the
proper individuals the desire to fill certain positions
and to perform well the duties attached to their desired
positions.
Social Inequality

Social inequality is the effect of limiting or

impairing a group or an individual’s social status, class,
and privileges. It exists in access to social, political, and
symbolic capital; acceptance of gender preferences;
cultural minorities; and in the global community, This is
most common in a highly stratified society.
The manisfestation of social inequality in the society can be seen
in many ways. The following are some examples:
1. Access to capital
Marx described capital as the means of production. It
is the main resource of a person in order to survive.
Capital exist in different forms: financial capital
(money), cultural capital (culture), human capital (skills
and knowledge), social capital (networks), and symbolic
capital (honor and prestige).
 It is already evident that many people in all societies
experience inequality in terms of financial capital. In fact, this
is one of the primary factors that dictate the social stratum of a
person. However, loss of access to social capital and symbolic
capital can also trigger social inequality (Bourdieu, 1986).
 People who have more social capital tend to have more
opportunities in life (Bruenig, 2013). Take the case of two
jobseekers as an example. The first jobseekers only relies on
his/her skills and competencies in order to be accepted in the
job; while the other jobseeker’s main edge is his/her social
capital-a relative in the company.
 This relative picks the second jobseeker from the list
without second thoughts and immediately puts him/her
on the job. In this example, the person who has less
social capital experienced severe unfairness and
inequality.
2. Gender inequality

since 1990s, female population among all societies in

the world have taken leaps toward gender inequality.
However, they are still far from achieving complete gender
equity. According to the 2015 Human Development
Report on UNDP, female are still discriminated in health ,
education, political representation, labor market, and
more.
 Gender inequality acknowledges that men
and women are not equal and that gender affects an
individual's lived experience. These differences arise
from distinctions in biology, psychology, and cultural
norms. ... Gender inequality is experienced
differently across different cultures.
3. Inequality to cultural minorities
Inequality also manifest in cultural minorities, such as ethnic
groups, sexual minorities, persons with disabilities (PWDs), and
religious minorities.

Stereotype is the most common basis for inequality against

minorities.
4. Global inequality

International inequality refers to the idea

of inequality between countries. This can be compared
to global inequality which is inequality between people
across countries. ... Meaning that countries or citizens
can live without the constant desire for the life someone
else has.
Historical Materialism

Materialism means that economic factor are the bases

of reality, which are also considered as the substructure of
society. The superstructure of society or the society as a
whole is based on this substructure. Therefore, political
institutions, customs, culture, education system, religion,
morality, legal system and ideologies all arise from
economic bases.
 The lucid statement of Karl Marx with regard to the
materialist conception of history or Historical
materialism is found in the preface of his book a
Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859).
Materialist conception of history is a social theory that
gives primary importance to economic variables as away
to explain the development of society.
 Stages of social development
1.Primitive communal
This stages is composed of early tribal societies before the
establishment of civilization. These societies employed
traditional technology in order to produce. All members of the
tribal groups have to engage in food gathering to survive.
There were no surplus products because they
prodused/gathered only what they need. Since there was no
concept of private property, all the resources in their
environment were commonly-owned by the people. There
were no social classes. Theoretically, there was no
exploitation.
2. Slave society
This is the second mode of production in human social
development. Slaves had no rights and were owned by another
person(salve master). Slaves were people who own nothing but
they served as the major means of production and producers of
the surplus without pay-thus, the exploitation. The slave masters
were the ones who owned and appropriated the surplus. During
this period, concepts of state and law emerged.
3.Feudal society

A mode of production that reflected land ownership,

feudal society existed at the end of medieval Europe and
before the rise of early capitalism, in this stage, the basis of
wealth was land. The ruling class (land lards) were the
members of the nobility or aristocratic class (who exploited
the peasants or surfs through reciprocated contract).
 Feudalism gave way to technological development (arts and
sciences), which fueled the bourgeois revolutions. The peasants
were gradually freed from the hands of the feudal lords to work
in large factories, which eventually led to a new social class
structure that is the capitalist system.
4. Capitalist society
The most important characteristic of capitalist society is
accumulation of capital through exploitation of workers. This is
the type of society most states in the world is implementing. This
contact exploitation and allenation of the proletariat give rise to
class struggle of social revolution.
 The relations of production is highly productive due to
advanced technology and division of labor. The forces of
production, on the other hand, still revolve on private ownership
(Kyn, n.d.). This contradiction of forces and relations of
production makes the workers have a high level of social
awareness or class consciousness that might lead to proletarian
revolution. This revolution will aim for the abolition of private
property.
5. Socialism
This a mode of production which is also called as pre-mature
communism. Under socialism, the production is done to produce
for the use-value system, contrasting capitalism where the primary
goal is accumulating profit. The production is under the control of
the state as the central planning agency. The way to compensate the
people in the socialist system is based on true meritocracy, which
means that a person is rewarded depending on his/her contribution
in the society.
6. Communism
The social revolution which would destroy the capitalist
system will ultimately lead to a classless society, there will be no
exploitation of workers and unequal distribution of income
among the members of society. Communism as a mode of
production chained the forces of production.
The advanced technology will pay as an instrument for growth
and productivity. All members of society will benefit from all
these economic outputs because of equal sharing. There is no
need for private allocation of resources because all the resources
are owned and controlled by the public.
Weberian View of Stratification
In the previous segments, it has been told that a person’s
motivation is a key contributor to the class he/she is in. Every
person uses his/her motivation to work on a specific social
desirable. Max Weber (1964) has given three social desirables
that primarily keep people going: wealth, power, and prestige.
 Wealth pertains to the fortune and possessions a person has.
It is the greatest material desirable that almost all people in all
societies strive to gain, Power, or the need to be in control, is
another social desire. It is an immaterial ability to exercise one’s
will over others despite resistance. Lastly, people also desire
prestige, which comes doing: wealth, power and prestige
In connection to the social desirables, Weber also identified three analytical
components of social stratification, namely, class, status, and power.

Class, according to weber, is a group of people who have similar

levels of wealth and income. For example, a group of professionals
who are earning below maximum wage is considered a class because
they have similar income and social trajectory.
Status refers to the group of people who have the same lifestyle
and prestige regardless of their social class, weber stated that the social
ranking of individuals may be dictated by their prestige in the society.
 The third component that Weber classified is power, rooted in
the political dimension. It can be acquired through election to
political positions, such as in government, corporation or
organization.

Every member of society has a rank based on class, status, and

power. These components are interconnected with one another;
however, they may not necessarily affect each other. For example,
an advocacy leader may have a low income which bring him/her to
the lower class. However, he/she may still have power over his/her
followers, bringing him/her to a higher class.