Faculty of Medecin

Biophysics (M 1029)

Chapter 37

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
IONISING RADIATION

Prof. Dr. Khalil Thabayneh

Hebron University - Palestine
37.2. Mechanisms of Cell Damage
■ Ionizing radiation causes damage to molecules, occasionally by
a direct hit on a molecule, but more often indirectly by the
creation of ‘free radicals’ ‫جذور حرة‬.
■ Free radicals are uncharged atoms or fragments of molecules
possessing an electron. Free radicals may cause damage to
cellular proteins by breaking molecular bonds and rendering‫جعل‬
protein molecules non-functional ‫ غير ف ع ا لة‬or even harmful
‫ض ارة‬.
If there are many undamaged copies of the protein, this may not
adversely affect cellular function, but too much damage may
result in cell death.
 ■ Direct hits and free-radical production by radiation may
damage cellular DNA. If this occurs there are several
possible outcomes:
• DNA damage which the cell can detect and fix ‫ي تم إصالحه‬.
• DNA damage that cannot be fixed ‫ال ي تم إصالحه‬, causing the
cell death.
• Non-lethal damage‫ ض رر غير ق اتل‬that is passed on as a
mutation in subsequent cell divisions‫ي تم ن قله ك طفرة ف ي‬
‫انقسامات لخاليا ا لالحقة‬.
‫ا‬
■ In addition, neighbouring cells ‫ا لخاليا ا لمجاورة‬which are not
directly damaged by radiation may experience damage by
communication with the damaged cells . DNA damage is
described as either somatic‫ جسدي‬or genetic . Somatic
damage is noninheritable‫ال ي ورث‬.
 ■ The serious adverse effect ‫ا لتأثير ا لسلبيا لخطير‬of somatic
damage is to increase the risk that a cancer will develop.
Genetic damage is inheritable and results from the mutation
of DNA in the reproductive ‫ا لخاليا ا لتناسلية‬cells, and these
changes may thus be passed on to future generations‫ا ألجيا ل‬
‫ا لقادمة‬
37.3. Dose and Dose Equivalent
(a) The absorbed dose, D, is a physical quantity which
quantifies the amount of energy absorbed by some material.
• The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy). 1 gray is
equivalent to 1 joule of energy being delivered to 1
kilogram of matter. An older unit of absorbed dose is the
rad. Where 1Gy = 1 J kg−1 = 100 rad
The absorbed dose is given by:

where ΔE is the energy lost from the radiation beam, and m

is the mass of material into which the energy is absorbed.
• Absorbed dose is an important concept, since the effect of
radiation on biological tissue depends directly on the
amount of energy absorbed by that tissue.
• The damaging effects of radiation occur when molecular
bonds in important biological molecules are broken or when
free radicals ‫ ا لجذور ا لحرة‬are formed. Both of these processes
require energy, and thus the amount of damage produced by
radiation is proportional to the amount of energy from the
radiation that is absorbed.
 (b) Dose Equivalent (DE)
• The dose equivalent can be thought of as an expression of the
dose in terms of its biological effect. To estimate this, we define
the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of a particular kind
of radiation (also known as the Quality Factor, Q). The RBE
varies from one kind of radiation to another and quantifies the
damage produced by each kind of radiation in biological tissue.
• Approximate RBE values (summarized from ICRP (1991))
♦ X and Gamma rays, RBE = 1
♦ Electrons, RBE = 1
♦ Neutrons, RBE = 5
♦ Protons, RBE = 5
♦ Alpha Particles, RBE = 20
• RBE is a weighting factor ‫عاملت رجيح‬which depends on the type
of ionising radiation. The RBE is higher for radiation types that
deliver their energy to a smaller number of cells.
• The fact that the range of the α particle is less than that of β, γ or
X-rays, results in α radiation depositing its energy in a smaller
area.
• The greater concentration of ionization and cell damage results
in greater (adverse) biological effect, and thus a larger value of
the RBE. Similarly, β radiation has a larger value of the RBE
than γ radiation.
• The RBE of γ radiation is set at 1. This means that radiation with
a RBE of 7 (for example) is seven times as damaging as the
same absorbed dose of γ radiation.
• The dose equivalent is measured in Sievert (Sv). The dose
equivalent is obtained by multiplying the absorbed dose by the
RBE Sv ≡ Gy × RBE
• The non-SI unit still in use is the rem (which stands for
Röentgen equivalent man): dose equivalent in rem =
absorbed dose in rad × RBE, where 1 Sv = 100 rem
(c) Effective dose : It is the tissue-weighted sum of the  dose
equivalent  in all tissues and organs of the human body and
represents the stochastic health risk ‫ ا لمخاطر ا لصحية ا لعشوائية‬to
the whole body, which is the probability of cancer
induction  and genetic effects, of low levels of ionizing
radiation.
E = ∑ WT × DE
• Where
E: is the effective dose to the entire organismis ‫ل لكائنا لحيك امال‬

DE the equivalent dose absorbed by tissue

WT  is the tissue weighting factor
Example 37.1 Page 395
(a) A 5 g tumour ‫ ورم‬is irradiated with high energy X-rays
and absorbs a total of 0.2 J of energy. What is the
absorbed dose in gray and rad, and the dose equivalent in
sievert and rem?
(b) An alternate treatment‫عالج ب ديل‬for the same tumour is
to administer a chemical solution containing a radioactive
isotope which is preferentially‫ب شكلت فضيلي‬absorbed by
the tumour. If the isotope involved‫ ا لمعني‬is an alpha
emitter with an RBE of 20 and the tumour absorbs 0.05 J
of energy.
What is the absorbed dose in gray and rad, and the dose
equivalent in sievert and rem?
Example 37.2 Page 396
Careless 75‫ غير مبا لي‬kg radiopharmacologist accidentally
‫ ب ا لخطأ‬ingests a small amount of a 1.7 MeV Beta emitter
with a half-life of 24 days. The activity of the sample
ingested is 13 mCi.
What is the equivalent dose in rem received by the
pharmacologist in the first minute of his exposure to the
radioactive sample, if 20% of all beta particles emitted are
absorbed in his body?
37.4. Types of Effect
■ Biological effects from ionising radiation have already
been categorised as somatic‫ جسدي‬or genetic in terms of the
effect of this radiation on DNA. The biological effects of
radiation can also be divided into two other categories:
deterministic ‫ حتمية‬and stochastic ‫عشوائية‬.
■ Deterministic effects are produced by radiation doses that
are high enough to denature‫ ت دني‬proteins or to cause cell
death. These effects are therefore definite, noticeable and
fairly immediate ‫ ل حظية وفورية‬,‫محددة‬. When the radiation
dose is smaller, there may not be any obvious damage to
cells or organs, but the risk of a disease like cancer is
increased.
• There are a number of characteristics of deterministic and
stochastic effects of radiation exposure:
1- These are early effects: they appear very quickly after the
radiation dose is received.
2- They are the result of ‘lethal damage ‫ ’أضرار مميتة‬to tissue. The
cells of the tissue are killed by the radiation exposure.
3- The killing of cells by radiation is extensive enough‫ ب ما ي كفي‬that
it reduces or destroys ‫ ي دمر‬at least some organ function.
4- The lethal damage required to produce cell death occurs only for
radiation exposure which results in doses above some minimum
value, i.e., there is a ‘threshold’ dose below which deterministic
effects do not occur.
5- These verity of these effects increases with increasing dose.
• Some examples of deterministic effects are the formation of
cataracts, infertility ‫ا لعقم‬and erythema (skin reddening). These
are all the result of cell death in the organs concerned.
 Stochastic effects, because they can only be discussed in
terms of increased risk of disease or of inheritable mutation
‫حدوثطفرة ورائية‬, are much harder to definitely characterise
‫ي صعبوصفها‬. However, they are distinct from deterministic
effects in several ways:
• These are ‘late’ effects ‫ت أثيراتمتأخرة‬, they do not appear
immediately, but occur some time after the radiation
exposure has occurred .
• They are effects caused by cellular or DNA damage, but
damage which is not immediately lethal‫ غير ق اتلعلىا لفور‬.
• The fact that a cell, while damaged, is not killed by radiation
exposure means that the cellular repair mechanisms come
into operation.
• The probability of harm ‫ ا لضرر‬increases with increasing
dose.
37.5 . Medical Effects and Risk
Large radiation doses may cause radiation sickness. Radiation
sickness is referring to a group of deterministic effects which have
been observed to appear soon after very large radiation doses.
The first symptoms of radiation sickness to occur are typically:
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and fatigue‫ا لغثيانوا لقئوا إلسها لوا لتعب‬.
Other symptoms that may occur are skin burns ‫(حروقا لجلد‬redness,
blistering‫)احمرار وتقرحات‬, weakness‫ض عف‬, fainting ‫إغماء‬,
dehydration‫جفاف‬, anemia ‫ف قر دم‬, dry cough‫س ع ا لجاف‬, inflammation
of exposed areas ‫تهاب لمناطقا لمكشوفة‬
‫( ا ل ا‬along with redness ‫احمرار‬,
Tenderness ‫رقة‬, swelling ‫ت ورم‬, bleeding‫)ن زيف‬, hair loss, ulceration
of the oral mucosa ‫ت قرح ا لغشاء ا لمخاطيل لفم‬, ulceration of the
esophagus ‫ ت قرح ا لمريء‬, stomach or intestines ‫ت قرح ا لمع دة وا ألمع اء‬,
vomiting blood ‫ ت قيء دم‬, bloody stools‫ب راز دموي‬,
bleeding from the nose, mouth, gums, and rectum,‫ن زيفمنا ألنف‬
‫ وا لفم وا للثة وا لمستقيم‬,bruising‫ك دمات‬, open sores on the skin
‫ف تح ا لقروح ف يا لجلد‬and headache ‫ا لصداع‬.
• The cells that are most susceptible ‫ ا ألكثر عرضة‬to death from
radiation are those in the intestinal lining ‫ا لموجودة ف يا لبطانة‬
‫ا لمع وية‬, white blood cells ‫خاليا ا لدم ا لبيضاء‬and the cells that
make red and white blood cells. Many of the symptoms listed,
such as dehydration, vomiting, and diarrhoea, are the result of
damage to the intestinal tract‫ مثلا لجفاف‬، ‫ا لع ديد منا ألعراضا لمذكورة‬
‫تلف يا ألمع اء‬
‫ هين تيجة ل ف‬،‫وا لقيء وا إلسها ل‬.
• The time taken for a person to die‫ ي موت‬from a lethal radiation
dose is around two to four weeks. Patients who receive a high
full-body dose of radiation and are still alive‫ عاش‬after six
weeks are likely to recover‫منا لمرجح أني تع افى‬.
 ■ The treatments available are largely aimed at ameliorating the
symptoms: antinausea drugs, painkillers, antibiotics to help fight
infections and blood transfusions for anemia.
‫ أدوية مضادات‬:‫يهدف توفر العالجات المتاحة إلى حد كبير إلى تحسين األعراض‬
‫ والمضادات الحيوية للمساعدة في مكافحة االلتهابات ونقل‬، ‫ ومسكنات األلم‬، ‫األيلينا‬

‫الدم لفقر الدم‬

■ Exposure to smaller amounts of radiation may cause no
noticeable effects at the time. Long-term epidemiological studies
‫دراسات لوبائية ا لطويلة ا المد‬
‫ا‬ ‫ا ل‬on populations exposed to varying doses
of radiation, such as atom-bomb survivors in Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, suggest that the probability of developing cancer from
radiation exposure increases linearly with the accumulated dose
‫ا لجرعة ا لتراكمية‬.
37.6. Ultraviolet Radiation
• Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
between the violet end of the visible part and X-rays.
• Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may well result in damage to
biological tissue, but it is not dangerous in the same way as γ or X-
ray radiation.
• Ultraviolet (UV) photons are those in the wavelength range between
X-rays and visible light, around 10 nm to 400 nm. The most important
source of ultraviolet radiation in everyday life is the Sun, which emits
radiation from wavelengths of about 200 nm up. This range, the ‘near
UV’ is subdivided into three categories:
UVA – 400 nm to 320 nm.
UVB – 320 nm to 280 nm.
UVC – 280 nm to 200 nm.
• All three types of ultraviolet light reaching the Earth’s surface will
damage collagen in the skin, causing premature aging ‫ش يخوخة مبكرة‬.
The least harmful is UVA. UVB on the other hand, causes the most
skin reddening (erythema) and can cause DNA damage by disrupting
covalent bonds ‫ ت عطيلا لروابط ا لتساهمية‬which can lead to skin cancer,
and also causes cataracts.
• Short - wavelength UV radiation can be used for antibacterial
sterilisation ‫ا لتعقيم ا لمضاد ل لبكتريا‬, as it causes DNA damage that can
inhibit the ability of bacteria to replicate ‫ي منع ق درة ا لبكتريا علىا لتكاثر‬.
• Sunscreen ingredients protect the skin in one of two ways‫واقيات لشمس‬ ‫ا‬
‫ت حميا لبشرة ب طريقتين‬
– by blocking (reflecting) the UV light (titanium dioxide is a common
ingredient in sunscreens of this kind),
– by absorbing and re-radiating the energy at much longer wavelengths
(avobenzone, does).
 Problems Page 400
37.1. A 65 kg person undergoing a series of X-rays receives a
dose of 12 rem.
(a) What dose does he receive in sieverts and rad?
(b) How much energy was deposited in the person’s body?

37.3. A person is exposed to ionizing radiation which

deposits 10 J of energy in their tissue.
(a) What dose (in Gy) would an 80 kg adult and a 15 kg child
receive under these circumstances?
(b) What dose (in rem) would the adult and child each receive
if the radiation were low energy (< 0.03MeV) β radiation?
(c) What dose (in Sv) would the adult and child each receive
if the radiation were low energy α radiation? (RBE=10.)
37.4. A person with lymphoma receives a dose of 35 Gy
in the form of γ radiation during a course of
radiotherapy. Most of this dose is absorbed in 18 g of
cancerous lymphatic tissue.
(a) How much energy is absorbed by the cancerous
tissue?
(b) If this treatment consists of 15 minute sessions per
week over the course of 5 weeks and just 1% of the γ
photons in the γ ray beam are absorbed, what is the
power of the γ ray beam?
37.5. A 60 kg person accidentally ingests a small source of
alpha particles (RBE=15). The activity of the source is
0.04 Ci, the half life of the source is 110 years, and each
alpha particle emitted has an energy of 0.586 MeV. It takes
12 hours for the alpha source to pass through the persons
digestive system and exit the body.
(a) How many alpha particles are absorbed by the person
(you may assume that 100% of the alpha particles emitted
by the source are absorbed by the person)?
(b) How much energy is deposited in the person by the
source (in J)?
(c) What is the absorbed dose (in rad)?
(d) What is the absorbed dose (in rem)?
37.6. A radioactive contaminant gives an unfortunate 0.5
kg lab rat a dose of 1500 rem in just 1 minute.
Assuming that the half life of the radioactive isotope in
the contaminant is much longer than 1 minute, what
would the activity (in Bq) of the contaminant be if ...
(a) the contaminant is a 5MeV alpha emitter (RBE = 15)?
(b) the contaminant is a 1.1MeV beta emitter?
(c) the contaminant is a 0.01MeV gamma emitter?