COURSE UNIT: MANAGEMENT

COURSE CODE: MGT 101

LECTURE 6 :EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
LECTURER: ABDIKANI HASAN YUSUF
 Learning Objectives
 Define motivation.
 Sources of Motivation

 Content Theories

 Process Theories

 Maslow’s need hierarchy theory

 Acquired Needs Theory

 Two-Factor Theory

 equity theory,

 expectancy theory,

 social cognitive theory,

 goal-setting theory.
 MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES
 Motivation: a set of forces that energize, direct, and
sustain behavior. These forces can come from the
person, the so-called “push” of internal forces, or they
can come from the environment that surrounds the
person, the so-called “pull” of external forces. It is,
therefore, essential for managers to recognize the
importance of both sets of factors when they are
analyzing motivational causes of behavior.
 Sources of Motivation

 three basic categories of variables determine motivation

in the work setting:
 1. The characteristics of the individual

 2. The characteristics of the job or task

 3. The characteristics of the work situation

 SOURCES OF MOTIVATION
 Key Variables That Influence Motivation
 INTERNAL (PUSH) FORCES

 Characteristics of the Individual (examples)

 Needs

 • For security

 • For self-esteem

 • For achievement

 • For power

 Attitudes

 • About self

 • About job

 • About supervisor

 • About organization
 INTERNAL (PUSH) FORCES
 Goals
 • Task completion

 • Performance level

 • Career advancement

 BOTH INTERNAL (PUSH) AND EXTERNAL

(PULL) FORCES
 Characteristics of the Job/Task (examples)

 • Amount of direct feedback

 • Work load

 • Variety of tasks

 • Scope of tasks

 • Degree of control over tasks

 EXTERNAL (PULL)
FORCES
 EXTERNAL (PULL) FORCES
 Characteristics of the Work Situation (examples)

 Immediate Social Environment

 • Supervisor(s)

 • Workgroup members

 • Subordinates

 Organizational Actions

 • Rewards & compensation

 • Availability of training

 • Pressure for high levels of output

THE SOURCE OF INTERNAL, OR PUSH,
FORCES OF MOTIVATION.
 The first category, the individual’s characteristics, is the
source of internal, or push, forces of motivation. This is
what the employee brings to the work setting. Three
variables contribute to an individual’s push forces: The
person’s (1) needs, such as the need for security, self-
esteem, achievement, or power; (2) attitudes—toward
self, a job, a supervisor, or the organization; and (3)
goals such as completing a task, accomplishing a certain
level of performance, and career advancement.
 The second category of motivational forces, which
relates to both internal (push) and external (pull) forces,
focuses on the characteristics of a person’s job or task—
what the person does in the work setting.
 INTERNAL (PUSH) AND EXTERNAL (PULL) FORCES
 These characteristics include how much direct feedback
the person receives, the person’s workload, the variety
and scope of the tasks that make up the job, and the
degree of control the person has in terms of how he or
she does the job.
 The third category of motivational forces also consists
of external pull forces. It relates to the characteristics of
the work situation—what happens to the individual. This
category has two sets of variables: the immediate social
environment composed of the person’s supervisor(s),
work-group members, and subordinates; and various
types of organizational actions, such as, for example, the
firm’s reward and compensation practices, the
availability of training and development, and the amount
of pressure applied to achieve high levels of output.
 SOURCES OF MOTIVATION

 Taken together, the three major categories of variables—

individual, job, and work situation— can serve as a useful
framework for analyzing the sources of motivation, whether
the workplace is in Bangkok, Lima, or Chicago. The
framework also forms a good basis for considering the
major theories of motivation relevant to managing in
organizational settings. We present these theories next.
 Motivation Theories Applicable to Work Situations
 Several theories of motivation are particularly relevant for
work settings. However, it is important to note that almost
all these theories were developed by American behavioral
scientists. Thus, an obvious question is: Do these theories
apply only in the context of American culture and society, or
can the theories be used to analyze motivation in other
societies and cultures? Unfortunately, the answer is not
clear. Based on available evidence, the best answer is that
some of the theories can be applied widely across the world
whereas others cannot.
 MOTIVATION THEORIES APPLICABLE TO WORK
SITUATIONS
 Psychologists typically categorize motivation theories into
two types: content theories and process theories, The
two types together provide us with a deeper understanding
of motivation.
 content theories: motivation theories that focus on
what needs a person is trying to satisfy and on what
features of the work environment seem to satisfy those
needs. Such theories try to explain motivation by
identifying both (1) internal forces, that is, particular
needs, and (2) external forces, particular job and work
situation characteristics that are presumed to cause
behavior. Two content theories—need hierarchy and
acquired needs theories—focus on identifying internal
forces. A third theory, the two factor theory, focuses on
identifying external factors.
MOTIVATION THEORIES
MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY
 NEED HIERARCHY THEORIES
 The most prominent need hierarchy theory was
developed a half century ago by psychologist Abraham
Maslow. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is a theory
that states that people will first attempt to fulfill basic
needs, such as physiological and safety needs, before
making efforts to satisfy higher-order needs, such as
social and esteem needs. Maslow’s theory appealed to
managers because it was easy to remember. It contains
five types of needs that are arranged in a hierarchy of
strength and influence, starting with the most essential:
 Physiological needs: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter,
and other bodily needs.
 NEED HIERARCHY THEORIES
 Security (safety) needs: Security and protection from
physical and emotional harm.
 Social (belongingness) needs: Affection,
belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
 Esteem needs: Internal factors such as self-respect,
autonomy, and achievement, and external factors
such as status, recognition, and attention.
 Self-actualization needs: Drive to become what we
are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving
our potential, and self-fulfillment. Maslow separated
the five needs into higher and lower orders.
 NEED HIERARCHY THEORIES
 Physiological and safety needs, are lower-order needs,
and social, esteem, and self-actualization are higher-
order needs. Higher-order needs are satisfied internally
(within the person), whereas lower-order needs are
predominantly satisfied externally (by things such as
pay, union contracts, and so forth).
acquired needs theory: a motivation theory that
focuses on learned needs—such as those for
achievement, power, and affiliation—that become
enduring tendencies. McClelland considered three of
these needs—affiliation, power, and achievement—to be
especially important; hence, his theory is sometimes
referred to as the three-need theory).
 ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY

 However, most subsequent research has concentrated on

the need for achievement. According to McClelland’s
theory, a person who has a high need for achievement
habitually strives for success or goal attainment in task
situations (though not necessarily in other types of
settings). The research data collected by McClelland and
his associates indicate that individuals with high need
achievement prefer to
 work on tasks of moderate difficulty
 take moderate risks
 take personal responsibility for their actions
 receive specific and concrete feedback on their
performance
 ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY
 In other words, high need achievers want challenges, but
realistic challenges, not impossible ones. Especially
important from a managerial perspective, McClelland’s
theory suggests that “appropriate” training, that is,
showing people how to recognize and respond to
relevant achievement cues, can increase the need for
achievement. two-factor theory: a motivation theory
that focuses on the presumed different effects of
intrinsic job factors (motivation) and extrinsic
situational factors (hygiene factors). This theory
focuses on the distinction between factors that can
increase job satisfaction (“motivators”) and those that
can prevent dissatisfaction but cannot increase
satisfaction (“hygiene factors”).
MOTIVATORS
HYGIENE FACTORS
 TWO-FACTOR THEORY
 motivators are intrinsic factors directly related to the
doing of a job, such as the nature of the work itself,
responsibility level, personal growth opportunities, and
the sense of achievement and recognition directly
received by performing the work. The other factors,
hygiene factors, are extrinsic to not directly related
performing the job. They, instead, are associated with
conditions surrounding the job. Hygiene factors include
supervision, relations with co-workers, working
conditions, and company policies and practices related to
benefits and compensation.
MOTIVATORS & HYGIENE FACTORS
 TWO-FACTOR THEORY
 the two-factor theory predicts that “motivator”
factors actively increase satisfaction, whereas hygiene
factors only decrease dissatisfaction to the point
where the employee is “neither satisfied nor
dissatisfied. Despite criticisms, the two-factor theory
had one very important consequence in the years after it
was proposed: an increased emphasis on how jobs are
designed, that is, on how different combinations of tasks
are put together to form particular jobs. Managers and
organizations are realizing it is possible to revise jobs
to give employees a greater feeling of responsibility,
accomplishment, and achievement and this in turn
can affect their motivation. The general approach to
designing jobs that do this is called job enrichment.
 JOB ENRICHMENT

 job enrichment : increasing the complexity of a job to

provide a greater sense of responsibility,
accomplishment, and achievement. One of the most
comprehensive approaches to designing enriched jobs with
high potential for increased motivation is the “job
characteristics mode job characteristics model: an
approach that focuses on the motivational attributes of jobs
by emphasizing three sets of variables: core job
characteristics, critical psychological states, and outcomes .
Core Job Characteristics. Skill variety: Skill variety is
the degree to which a job requires a variety of different
activities so the worker can use a number of different
skills and talent. Example. The work of a garage owner-
operator who does electrical repairs, rebuilds engines, does
bodywork, and interacts with customers scores high on skill
variety. The job of a body shop worker who sprays paint 8
hours a day scores low on this dimension.
 SKILL VARIETY

 Task identity: is the degree to which a job requires

completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.
Example: A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of
furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and
finishes it to perfection has a job that scores high on task
identity. A job scoring low on this dimension is operating
a factory lathe solely to make table legs.
 Task significance: is the degree to which a job affects
the lives or work of other people. Example The job of
a nurse handling the diverse needs of patients in a
hospital intensive care unit scores high on task
significance; sweeping floors in a hospital scores low.
 AUTONOMY

 Autonomy: is the degree to which a job provides the

worker freedom, independence, and discretion in
scheduling work and determining the procedures in
carrying it out. Example: A salesperson who schedules
his or her own work each day and decides on the most
effective sales approach for each customer without
supervision has a highly autonomous job. A salesperson
who is given a set of leads each day and is required to
follow a standardized sales script with each potential
customer has a job low on autonomy. Feedback from job:
is the degree to which carrying out work activities
generates direct and clear information about your own
performance. Example: A job with high feedback is
assembling iPads and testing them to see whether they
operate properly. A factory worker who assembles iPads
but then routes them to a quality-control inspector for
testing and adjustments receives low feedback from his or
her activities.
 CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES
 Critical Psychological States
 Experienced Meaningfulness of the Work

 Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes of the Work

 Knowledge of the Actual Results of the Work Activities

 Outcomes

 High

 Internal Work Motivation

 “Growth Satisfaction”

 Work Effectiveness

 General Job Satisfaction

JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
 PROCESS THEORIES
 process theories: motivation theories dealing with the
way different variables combine to influence the
amount of effort people put forth. In other words,
whereas content theories focus on which variables affect
motivation, process theories focus on how the variables
affect it. The four most prominent types of process
theories are: equity theory, expectancy theory, social
cognitive theory, and goal-setting theory. We discuss
each next. equity theory: a motivation theory
proposing that individuals will compare their
circumstances to those of others and that such
comparisons may motivate certain kinds of behavior.
Equity theory, assumes that people know what kind of
effort and skills they put into their jobs and what kinds of
outcomes (salary, promotions, etc.) they receive from
their employer.
 EQUITY THEORY
 The theory also assumes that individuals are likely to
compare (a) the ratios of inputs to outcomes they
receive to (b) the ratios of other people like their
colleagues or acquaintances (within, or outside, their
organization). Such comparisons determine whether
the individual feels equitably treated. Equity theory
states that people have a number of ways to reduce their
feelings that others are “doing better” than they are. One
way is to increase their outcomes, such as getting a
salary increase or obtaining a promotion. Another
response might be to decrease their inputs; for example,
they might try to put less effort in the task and still
receive the same level of outcomes, if possible. A third
action might be to leave their jobs.
 EXPECTANCY THEORY
 expectancy theory: motivation theory that focuses on the
thought processes people use when choosing among
alternative courses of action with their anticipated
consequences. Expectancy theory focuses on the thought
processes people use when they face particular choices
among alternatives, particularly alternative courses of action.
Simplified, the theory proposes that two kinds of beliefs
affect the amount of effort people will choose to put forth.
One such belief, (typically referred to as an expectancy),
effort-to-performance, symbolized as (E → P), is the
probability that a certain amount of effort will lead to a
certain level of performance: “If I try to do this, will I
succeed?” The other belief (often called an instrumentality
belief ), performance-to-outcome, symbolized as (P→O), is
the probability that a particular level of performance will
lead to particular outcomes or consequences: “If I succeed,
will I get praise from the boss?”
 EXPECTANCY THEORY
 The third key variable in the theory is the valence (V), or
the anticipated value a person attaches to an outcome:
“How much will I like praise from the boss if I get it?”
If the valence of rewards offered is high, there is
potential for increased motivation; likewise, if the
anticipated value of those rewards is low, or the offered
rewards are seen as irrelevant, motivation is likely to be
weak. Instrumentality: is the belief that a person will
receive a reward if the performance expectation is met.
This reward may present itself in the form of a pay
increase, promotion, recognition or sense of
accomplishment.
 Valence: is characterized by the extent to which a
person values a given outcome or reward.
COMPONENTS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY
 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
 social cognitive theory: A process theory that, in part,
 describes how to increase an individual’s sense of self-
efficacy, thus increasing motivation. social cognitive
theory (SCT), developed by social psychologist Albert
Bandura. For our purposes, we will concentrate on one
key component of SCT: self-efficacy.
 self-efficacy: is the extent to which a person believes
he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific
situation. It is an individual’s confidence about his or
her abilities to mobilize motivation, cognitive resources,
and courses of action needed to successfully execute a
specific task within a given context.
 GOAL-SETTING THEORY
 goal-setting theory: a theory that emphasizes the role of
conscious goals(intentional Goals) and intentions in
directing human actions. Goal-setting theory assumes that
human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions.
Therefore, if managers can influence goals and
intentions, they can directly affect performance. The
level at which goals are set is a potentially powerful
determinant of motivation, and obtaining a person’s
commitment to particular goals is crucial. The findings
from goal-setting research point to two basic conclusions:
 More challenging: (higher or harder) goals, if accepted,
result in higher levels of effort than easier goals.
 Specific goals: result in higher levels of effort than
general or vague goals.
 REINFORCEMENT APPROACHES
 The two principal approaches that can be used to
increase the probability of behavior desired by the
manager or organization are positive and negative
reinforcements, which are discussed next.
 positive reinforcement: is the addition of a reward
following a desired behavior with the purpose of
increasing the likelihood the behavior will occur
again. When a positive outcome or reward occurs after
an action, that particular response will be reinforced. The
Student receives $5.00 for every A he earns on his report
card. Positive reinforcement is a very powerful and
effective tool to help shape and change behavior.
Positive reinforcement works by presenting a motivating
item to the person after the desired behavior is exhibited,
making the behavior more likely to happen in the future.
 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
 Negative reinforcement: involves the removal of a
negative condition to strengthen a behavior. The
likelihood of the particular behavior occurring again in
the future is increased because of removing/avoiding the
negative stimuli. Negative reinforcement should not be
thought of as a punishment procedure. With negative
reinforcement, you are increasing a behavior, whereas
with punishment, you are decreasing a behavior.
Example: The student always complains of a
headache when it is time to start doing his
homework. His parents allow him to go to bed
without doing his homework. When thinking about
reinforcement, always remember that the end result is to
try to increase the behavior, whereas punishment
procedures are used to decrease behavior.
 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

 For positive reinforcement, try to think of it as adding

something positive in order to increase a response. For
negative reinforcement, try to think of it as taking
something negative away in order to increase a response.
 A punishment: is the imposition of a negative
consequence with the goal of reducing or stopping
someone's undesirable behavior.
The purpose of punishment is to prevent future
occurrences of a given socially unacceptable or
undesirable behavior. According to deterrence theory, the
awareness of a punishment will prevent people from
performing the behavior. This can be accomplished
either through punishing someone immediately after the
undesirable behavior so that they are reluctant to perform
the behavior again or through educating people about the
punishment preemptively so they are reluctant to
perform the behavior at all.
 THE END

THE END