SAMPLING & SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION EDITED ch07

Basic Business Statistics for
12th Edition
Chapter 7
Sampling and Sampling Distributions
Chap 7-1
Chap 7-1
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you learn:

• To distinguish between different sampling
methods
• The concept of the sampling distribution
• To compute probabilities related to the
sample mean and the sample proportion
• The importance of the Central Limit Theorem
Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,
Chap 7-2
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Chap 7-2
Why Sample? DCOVA
• Selecting a sample is less time-consuming &

less costly than selecting every item in the
population (census).
• An analysis of a sample is less cumbersome

and more practical than an analysis of the
entire population.

Chap 7-3
Chap 7-3
A Sampling Process Begins With A Sampling
Frame DCOVA
• The sampling frame is a listing of items that

make up the population
• Frames are data sources such as population
lists, directories, or maps
• Inaccurate or biased results can result if a frame
excludes certain portions of the population
• Using different frames to generate data can
lead to dissimilar conclusions

Chap 7-4
Chap 7-4
Types of Samples DCOVA
Samples
Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple Stratified
Judgment Convenience Random
Systematic Cluster

Chap 7-5
Chap 7-5
Types of Samples:
Nonprobability Sample DCOVA
• In a nonprobability sample, items included

are chosen without regard to their probability
of occurrence.
– In convenience sampling, items are selected based only on
the fact that they are easy, inexpensive, or convenient to
sample.
– In a judgment sample, you get the opinions of pre-selected
experts in the subject matter.

Chap 7-6
Chap 7-6
Types of Samples:
Probability Sample DCOVA
• In a probability sample, items in the sample are

chosen on the basis of known probabilities.
Probability Samples
Simple
Random Systematic Stratified Cluster

Chap 7-7
Chap 7-7
Probability Sample:
Simple Random Sample DCOVA
• Every individual or item from the frame has an

equal chance of being selected.
• Selection may be with replacement (selected

individual is returned to frame for possible
reselection) or without replacement (selected
individual isn’t returned to the frame).
• Samples obtained from table of random numbers

or computer random number generators.
Chap 7-8
Chap 7-8
Selecting a Simple Random Sample Using A
Random Number Table DCOVA
Portion Of A Random Number Table
Sampling Frame For 49280 88924 35779 00283 81163 07275
11100 02340 12860 74697 96644 89439
Population With 09893 23997 20048 49420 88872 08401
850 Items
The First 5 Items in a simple
Item Name Item # random sample
Bev R. 001 Item # 492
Ulan X. 002
Item # 808
. .
Item # 892 -- does not exist so ignore
. .
Item # 435
. .
. . Item # 779
Joann P. 849 Item # 002
Paul F. 850

Chap 7-9
Chap 7-9
Probability Sample:
Systematic Sample DCOVA
• Decide on sample size: n

• Divide frame of N individuals into groups of k
individuals: k=N/n
• Randomly select one individual from the 1st group
• Select every kth individual thereafter
N = 40 First Group
n=4
k = 10 Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,
Chap 7-10
Chap 7-10
Probability Sample:
Stratified Sample DCOVA
• Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata) according to

some common characteristic
• A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup, with sample sizes
proportional to strata sizes
• Samples from subgroups are combined into one
• This is a common technique when sampling population of voters, stratifying
across racial or socio-economic lines.
Population
Divided
into 4
strata

Chap 7-11
Chap 7-11
Probability Sample
Cluster Sample DCOVA
• Population is divided into several “clusters,” each representative of the

population
• A simple random sample of clusters is selected
• All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can be chosen from
a cluster using another probability sampling technique
• A common application of cluster sampling involves election exit polls,
where certain election districts are selected and sampled.
Population
divided into
16 clusters. Randomly selected
clusters for sample
Chap 7-12
Chap 7-12
Probability Sample:
Comparing Sampling Methods DCOVA
• Simple random sample and Systematic sample

– Simple to use
– May not be a good representation of the population’s
underlying characteristics
• Stratified sample
– Ensures representation of individuals across the entire
population
• Cluster sample
– More cost effective
– Less efficient (need larger sample to acquire the same level
of precision)

Chap 7-13
Chap 7-13
Evaluating Survey Worthiness
DCOVA
• What is the purpose of the survey?
• Is the survey based on a probability sample?
• Coverage error – appropriate frame?
• Nonresponse error – follow up
• Measurement error – good questions elicit
good responses
• Sampling error – always exists

Chap 7-14
Chap 7-14
Types of Survey Errors DCOVA
• Coverage error or selection bias

– Exists if some groups are excluded from the frame and have no
chance of being selected
• Nonresponse error or bias

– People who do not respond may be different from those who do
respond
• Sampling error
– Variation from sample to sample will always exist
• Measurement error
– Due to weaknesses in question design, respondent error, and
interviewer’s effects on the respondent (“Hawthorne effect”)
Chap 7-15
Chap 7-15
Types of Survey Errors
DCOVA
(continued)
Excluded from
• Coverage error frame
Follow up on
• Non response error nonresponses
Random
• Sampling error differences from
sample to sample
• Measurement error Bad or leading

question
Chap 7-16
Chap 7-16
Sampling Distributions
DCOVA
• A sampling distribution is a distribution of all of the possible
values of a sample statistic for a given size sample selected
from a population.
• For example, suppose you sample 50 students from your

college regarding their mean GPA. If you obtained many
different samples of 50, you will compute a different mean for
each sample. We are interested in the distribution of the
mean GPA from all possible samples of 50 students.

Chap 7-17
Chap 7-17
Developing a
Sampling Distribution
DCOVA
• Assume there is a population …

D
• Population size N=4 A B C
• Random variable, X,
is age of individuals
• Values of X: 18, 20,
22, 24 (years)

Chap 7-18
Chap 7-18
Developing a
(continued)
DCOVA
Summary Measures for the Population Distribution:
μ
 X i P(x)
N .3
18  20  22  24 .2
  21
4 .1
0
σ
 i
(X  μ)2
 2.236
18 20 22 24 x
N A B C D
Uniform Distribution
Developing a
(continued)
Now consider all possible samples of size n=2 DCOVA
16 Sample
1st 2nd Observation
Obs Means
18 20 22 24
1st 2nd Observation
18 18,18 18,20 18,22 18,24 Obs 18 20 22 24
20 20,18 20,20 20,22 20,24
18 18 19 20 21
22 22,18 22,20 22,22 22,24
24 24,18 24,20 24,22 24,24
20 19 20 21 22
16 possible samples 22 20 21 22 23
(sampling with
replacement)
24 21 22 23 24
Chap 7-20
Chap 7-20
Developing a
Sampling Distribution DCOVA
(continued)
Sampling Distribution of All Sample Means
16 Sample Means Sample Means

Distribution
1st 2nd Observation _
Obs 18 20 22 24 P(X)
.3
18 18 19 20 21
.2
20 19 20 21 22
.1
22 20 21 22 23
0 _
24 21 22 23 24 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 X
(no longer uniform)Chap 7-21
Chap 7-21
Developing a
Sampling Distribution DCOVA
(continued)
Summary Measures of this Sampling Distribution:
18  19  19    24
μX   21
16
(18 - 21)2  (19 - 21)2    (24 - 21)2
σX   1.58
16
Note: Here we divide by 16 because there are 16

different samples of size 2.
Chap 7-22
Chap 7-22
Comparing the Population Distribution
to the Sample Means Distribution
DCOVA
Population Sample Means Distribution
N=4 n=2
μ  21 σ  2.236 μX  21 σ X  1.58
_
P(X) P(X)
.3 .3
.2 .2
.1 .1
0
X
0
18 19 20 21 22 23 24
_
18 20 22 24 X
A B C D
Chap 7-23
Chap 7-23
Sampling Distribution of The Mean:
Standard Error of the Mean
DCOVA
• Different samples of the same size from the same population
will yield different sample means
• A measure of the variability in the mean from sample to
sample is given by the Standard Error of the Mean:
(This assumes that sampling is with replacement or
sampling is without replacement from an infinite population)
σ
σX 
n
• Note that the standard error of the mean decreases as the
sample size increases
Chap 7-24
Chap 7-24
If the Population is Normal
DCOVA
• If a population is normal with mean μ and

standard deviation σ, the sampling distribution
X
of is also normally distributed with
σ
μX  μ σX 
n
and

Chap 7-25
Chap 7-25
Z-value for Sampling Distribution
of the Mean DCOVA
X :
• Z-value for the sampling distribution of
( X  μX ) ( X  μ)
Z 
σX σ
n
where: =Xsample mean
μ
= population mean
σ
= population standard deviation
n = sample size

Chap 7-26
Chap 7-26
Sampling Distribution Properties
DCOVA
Normal Population
μx  μ Distribution
•
μ x
(i.e.
x is unbiased ) Normal Sampling
Distribution
(has the same mean)
μx
x
Chap 7-27
Chap 7-27
Sampling Distribution Properties
(continued)
DCOVA
As n increases, Larger
σ x decreases sample size
Smaller
sample size
μ
x
Chap 7-28
Chap 7-28
Determining An Interval Including A Fixed
Proportion of the Sample Means
DCOVA
Find a symmetrically distributed interval around µ
that will include 95% of the sample means when µ
= 368, σ = 15, and n = 25.
– Since the interval contains 95% of the sample means
5% of the sample means will be outside the interval.
– Since the interval is symmetric 2.5% will be above the
upper limit and 2.5% will be below the lower limit.
– From the standardized normal table, the Z score with
2.5% (0.0250) below it is -1.96 and the Z score with
2.5% (0.0250) above it is 1.96.
Chap 7-29
Chap 7-29
Determining An Interval Including A Fixed
Proportion of the Sample Means
(continued)
DCOVA
• Calculating the lower limit of the interval
σ 15
XL  μ Z  368  (1.96)  362.12
n 25
• Calculating the upper limit of the interval

σ 15
XU  μZ  368  (1.96)  373.88
n 25
• 95% of all sample means of sample size 25

are between 362.12 and 373.88
Chap 7-30
Chap 7-30
If the Population is not Normal
DCOVA
• We can apply the Central Limit Theorem:
– Even if the population is not normal,
– …sample means from the population will be approximately
normal as long as the sample size is large enough.
Properties of the sampling distribution:
σ
μ x  μand σx 
n
Chap 7-31
Chap 7-31
Sample Mean Sampling Distribution:
If the Population is not Normal
(continued)
Population Distribution DCOVA

Sampling distribution
properties:
Central Tendency
μx  μ
μ x
Variation Sampling Distribution
σ (becomes normal as n increases)
σx  Larger
n Smaller
sample size
sample
size

μx x
Chap 7-32
Chap 7-32
How Large is Large Enough?
DCOVA
• For most distributions, n ≥ 30 will give a

sampling distribution that is nearly normal
• For fairly symmetric distributions, n ≥ 15
• For normal population distributions, the
sampling distribution of the mean is always
normally distributed

Chap 7-33
Chap 7-33
Example
DCOVA
• Suppose a population has mean μ = 8 and

standard deviation σ = 3. Suppose a random
sample of size n = 36 is selected.
• What is the probability that the sample mean

is between 7.8 and 8.2?

Chap 7-34
Chap 7-34
Example
(continued)
Solution: DCOVA
• Even if the population is not normally distributed,

the central limit theorem can be used (n ≥ 30)
• … so the sampling distribution of is
approximately normal x
• … with mean = 8
μx
• …and standard deviation σ 3
σx    0.5
n 36
Chap 7-35
Chap 7-35
Example
(continued)
Solution (continued): DCOVA
 
 7.8 - 8 X -μ 8.2 - 8 
P(7.8  X  8.2)  P   
 3 σ 3 
 36 n 36 
 P(-0.4  Z  0.4)  0.6554 - 0.3446  0.3108
Population Sampling Standard Normal

Distribution Distribution Distribution
???
? ??
? ? Sample Standardize
? ? ?
?
7.8 8.2 -0.4 0.4
μ8 X μX  8 x μz  0 Z
Chap 7-36
Chap 7-36
Population Proportions
DCOVA
π = the proportion of the population having

a characteristic of interest
• Sample proportion (p) provides an estimate
of π:
X number of items in the sample having the characteri stic of interest
p 
n sample size
• 0≤ p≤1
• p is approximately distributed as a normal distribution when
n is large
(assuming sampling with replacement from a finite population or
without replacement from an infinite population)
Chap 7-37
Chap 7-37
Sampling Distribution of p
DCOVA
• Approximated by a
normal distribution if: P( ps)
.3
– nπ 5 .2
.1
0
and
0 .2 .4 .6 8 1 p
n(1  π )  5
π(1 π )
where μp  π σp 
and n
(where π = population proportion)
Chap 7-38
Chap 7-38
Z-Value for Proportions
DCOVA
Standardize p to a Z value with the formula:
p  p 
Z 
σp  (1  )
n

Chap 7-39
Chap 7-39
Example
DCOVA
• If the true proportion of voters who support

Proposition A is π = 0.4, what is the probability
that a sample of size 200 yields a sample
proportion between 0.40 and 0.45?
 i.e.: if π = 0.4 and n = 200, what is

P(0.40 ≤ p ≤ 0.45) ?

Chap 7-40
Chap 7-40
Example
(continued)
DCOVA
• if π = 0.4 and n = 200, what is
P(0.40 ≤ p ≤ 0.45) ?
 (1  ) 0.4(1 0.4)
Find σ p : σ p    0.03464
n 200
Convert to  0.40  0.40 0.45  0.40 

P(0.40  p  0.45)  P Z 
standardized  0.03464 0.03464 
normal:
 P(0  Z  1.44)

Chap 7-41
Chap 7-41
Example
(continued)
DCOVA
• if π = 0.4 and n = 200, what is
P(0.40 ≤ p ≤ 0.45) ?
Utilize the cumulative normal table:
P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.44) = 0.9251 – 0.5000 = 0.4251
Standardized
Sampling Distribution Normal Distribution
0.4251
Standardize
0.40 0.45 0 1.44

p Z
Chap 7-42
Chap 7-42
Chapter Summary
• Discussed probability and nonprobability samples
• Described four common probability samples
• Examined survey worthiness and types of survey errors
• Introduced sampling distributions
• Described the sampling distribution of the mean
– For normal populations
– Using the Central Limit Theorem
• Described the sampling distribution of a proportion
• Calculated probabilities using sampling distributions

Chap 7-43
Chap 7-43
Basic Business Statistics for
12th Edition
Online Topic
Sampling From Finite Populations

Chap 7-44
Learning Objectives
In this section, you learn:

• To know when finite population corrections
are needed
• To know how to utilize finite population
correction factors in calculating standard
errors

Chap 7-45
Finite Population Correction Factors
DCOVA
• Used to calculate the standard error of both the

sample mean and the sample proportion
• Needed when the sample size, n, is more than 5%

of the population size N (i.e. n / N > 0.05)
• The Finite Population Correction Factor Is:

N n
fpc 
N 1
Chap 7-46
Using The fpc In Calculating Standard Errors
DCOVA
Standard Error of the Mean for Finite Populations
 N n
X 
n N 1
Standard Error of the Proportion for Finite Populations
 (1   ) N  n
p 
n N 1
Chap 7-47
Using The fpc Reduces The Standard Error
DCOVA
• The fpc is always less than 1
• So when it is used it reduces the standard

error
• Resulting in more precise estimates of

population parameters

Chap 7-48
Using fpc With The Mean - Example
DCOVA
Suppose a random sample of size 100 is drawn from a
population of size 1,000 with a standard deviation of 40.
Here n=100, N=1,000 and 100/1,000 = 0.10 > 0.05.

So using the fpc for the standard error of the mean we get:
40 1000  100
X   3. 8
100 1000  1
Chap 7-49
Section Summary
• Identified when a finite population correction

should be used.
• Identified how to utilize a finite population

correction factor in calculating the standard
error of both a sample mean and a sample
proportion
Chap 7-50

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Basic Business Statistics for

Sampling and Sampling Distributions

In this chapter, you learn:

• Selecting a sample is less time-consuming &

• An analysis of a sample is less cumbersome

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• The sampling frame is a listing of items that

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

Non-Probability Probability Samples

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• In a nonprobability sample, items included

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• In a probability sample, items in the sample are

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Every individual or item from the frame has an

• Selection may be with replacement (selected

• Samples obtained from table of random numbers

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Decide on sample size: n

• Divide population into two or more subgroups (called strata) according to

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Population is divided into several “clusters,” each representative of the

• Simple random sample and Systematic sample

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Coverage error or selection bias

• Nonresponse error or bias

• Measurement error Bad or leading

• For example, suppose you sample 50 students from your

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Assume there is a population …

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

Sampling Distribution of All Sample Means

16 Sample Means Sample Means

Summary Measures of this Sampling Distribution:

Note: Here we divide by 16 because there are 16

• If a population is normal with mean μ and

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Calculating the upper limit of the interval

• 95% of all sample means of sample size 25

Properties of the sampling distribution:

Population Distribution DCOVA

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• For most distributions, n ≥ 30 will give a

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Suppose a population has mean μ = 8 and

• What is the probability that the sample mean

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• Even if the population is not normally distributed,

Population Sampling Standard Normal

π = the proportion of the population having

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

• If the true proportion of voters who support

 i.e.: if π = 0.4 and n = 200, what is

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

Convert to  0.40  0.40 0.45  0.40 

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

0.40 0.45 0 1.44

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

Sampling From Finite Populations

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education,

In this section, you learn: