Questioning

the Necessary Assumptions

and Value Conflicts

CGE14411
Lecture 7

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Expected Outcomes of this Lecture
 After the lecture, you should be able to
 Explain the concepts of necessary
assumption, value, value conflict, and value
priorities
 Identify unstated assumptions in others’
arguments

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What is missing in the argument?
 Jacky can jump 10 m. Full deductive
reasoning
demands at least
 Jacky can jump 5 m. two premises for a
conclusion.

However, since this premise

can be taken for granted
(assumed to be true), the
argument may include only
one premise.
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Missing Premise in descriptive arguments
A. Other students talk on a mobile
In order for this
phone during lectures all the conclusion (C) to be
time. logically deduced
from (A), what has to
B. When other students be true as well?
are doing it, the
behavior is not wrong. When you critically
examine (B), you
may disagree with
C. There is nothing wrong if I talk it and challenge
on a mobile phone during the full argument
lectures.

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Missing Premise in prescriptive arguments
A. Copying other people’s
academic work is
dishonesty.
B. Academic honesty
is very important in
education.
C. Copying other people’s
academic work is not
acceptable in education
institutions
There is a value
assumption which every
educator knows.
We want to achieve this
“value”, but copying
violates this “value” and
is therefore not
acceptable
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 The reasoning is convincing to you only if you
agree with some unstated ideas that the author
has taken for granted ( 視之為理所當然 )
 On the other hand, if you doubt the unstated
ideas, you would challenge the soundness of the
argument
 When other students are doing it, is the
behavior acceptable then?
 Is academic honesty so important in
education?
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 A critical thinker must
find out these unstated
premises and examine
whether you agree with
them or not
 These unstated ideas are
called assumptions ( 假
定)

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Assumptions
 Assumptions are
 Hidden or unstated (in most cases)
 Taken for granted
 Serving as premises for the conclusion
 Potentially deceptive
 There are two major kinds of assumptions
A. Necessary assumptions
B. Value (prescriptive) assumptions
 We call them value priorities in this lecture

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Guide for Identifying Assumptions
 Look for those additional beliefs that have to be
acceptable in order that the argument is sound
 Assumptions that some ideas are true
(necessary assumptions)
 Assumptions that something is desirable
(value priorities)

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Necessary Assumptions

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Necessary Assumption
 Look at the following argument
 Mr Beckham is a native English speaker
 Therefore, Mr Beckham can write good
English

 It is valid only if another statement is

true
 These other statements are called
necessary assumptions

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• Mr Beckham is a native English
speaker

• Therefore, Mr Beckham can write

good English

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Necessary Assumption
 It is necessary that the assumption is true in
order that the conclusion must be correct (i.e.,
the argument is valid)

 The assumption is a necessary condition ( 必要

條件 ) for the argument to be valid

 If the assumption is not necessarily true, then

the conclusion is not necessarily true, and
therefore the argument is not valid

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Assumptions Connect
 An assumption, because it is not stated, is a
missing link in an argument
 For simple arguments, the implicit assumption
is usually a connecting statement filling in the
gap in the argument
 The assumption contains
 an element (antecedent or consequent)
in the premise and
 an element (antecedent or consequent)
in the conclusion;
 thus it connects the premise and
the conclusion
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Missing Link in an Argument
 Premise: If A then B
What is missing here?
 Conclusion: If A, then C

 Premise: If A then B
What is missing here?
 Premise: If C then D
 Conclusion: If A, then D

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 Premise: If A then B
What is missing here?
 Conclusion: If C, then B

 Premise: If A

What is missing here?

 Conclusion: then B

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Example 1
 Homosexuality is  Homosexuality is
wrong because it is unnatural
unnatural.  if A then B
A. Homosexuality
B. Unnatural
C. Wrong

 Therefore,
homosexuality is wrong
 If A then C

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Example 2
 It should not be  Taking marijuana
illegal for adults to does not harm anyone
take marijuana.  If A then not B
After all, it does
not harm anyone.
A. Take marijuana
B. Harm others  Taking marijuana
C. Illegal should not be made
illegal
 If A then not C

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Example 3
 Killing an innocent  Killing an innocent
person is wrong. person is wrong
Therefore,  If A then B
abortion is wrong.
A. Killing
B. Wrong
C. Abortion

 Abortion is wrong
 If C then B

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More about Assumptions
 For more complicated arguments, think about
the gap between the reason and the
conclusion
 “Even if the stated premises are true, what
else must also be true so that the conclusion
follows?”
 Without these assumptions, the speaker is
jumping to the conclusion

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Example 4
 If parents buy their children a good • The premise and
dictionary the conclusion
 If A are not closely
connected
• It is jumping to
conclusion

• Need to find out

the conditions
 Then the children can find out the that make the
meaning of words conclusion true
 Then C

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Example 5
 If students join an overseas exchange
programme, they will have plenty of
opportunities to talk with native
speakers
• This condition must
be true in order that
the conclusion is
true
 Then the students can enhance their
English proficiency

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Critically examine the assumption
 Ask
 Are these assumptions necessarily
true?
 Can you think of a counter-example?
 Should these assumptions be
accepted?

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 Challenge these assumptions
1. Anything unnatural is wrong
2. Anything that does not harm others
should not be made illegal
3. Abortion is killing
an innocent person

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Be a Critical Reader
 Look for gaps in the argument
 Identify the connecting assumptions
 Then, examine: “Is there any basis for
accepting the assumptions?”
 Any evidence?
 Any counter-examples?
 If no, the reason fails to provide support for
the conclusion

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Value (Prescriptive)
Assumptions

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 For prescriptive arguments, the assumption is
not only about a statement that makes the
conclusion true
 Rather, there should be an assumption about a
value that supports the conclusion that
 something is “good”
 something “should” be done

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You should buy these pieces
of jewelry. They help you
attract more boy friends!

 You will find this

persuasive if you

This is an implicit value

assumption
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Value, Value Conflict and Value
Priorities

1. Values
 Ideas that people see as worthwhile or
important.
 They provide standards of conduct by which we
measure the quality of human behavior

• Equality of
• Achievement • Justice
opportunity
• Comfort • Order
• Excellence
• Cooperation • Peace
• Freedom of speech
• Courage • Rationality
• Harmony
• Development • Wisdom
• Honesty
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2. Value conflicts
 Some values cannot be fulfilled
simultaneously in a particular context;
they are in conflict
 People hold different priorities regarding
values in conflicts, and value conflicts are
often the reason why people hold different
opinions regarding a conclusion

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 Different values may be in conflict on an issue
 My teacher asked me whether my
good friend cheated in a test

 Loyalty to a friend  Honesty is

is important important

 I should not tell  I should tell the

the truth to the truth to the
teacher teacher
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3. Value priority
 When two values conflict, a person has to
decide which value is of higher priority (or
more important)
 Is loyalty to a friend more important
than honesty?
 A value priority is an implicit preference for
one value over another in a particular
context

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 Protesters voice out their
views loudly in public; this
disrupts public order
 It is important to maintain
public order
 But it is more important to Higher priority
respect rights to express
their views
 Protesting loudly in public
should be allowed

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 Reasons
As a critical thinker:
+
Identify the value
priorities and
Value consider whether
priorities they are reasonable

Conclusion

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Example 1
 EU countries respect human rights
but also face security issues when
accepting refugees. German
Chancellor Merkel was eager to welcome the
refugees.
 Value:
 Value:
 Reason (value priority):

 Merkel’s conclusion: German should accept

the refugees
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Example 2
 After Tsai Ing-wen has assumed
presidency, the number of mainland
tourists to Taiwan has been on the decline. Tsai
accepts this and avoids endorsing the 1992
consensus (One China principle)
 Value:
 Value:
 Reason (value priority):

 Tsai’s conclusion: Taiwan should not agree to

1992 consensus
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 Example 3

 Chairman of the HKUSU Billy Fung called a

news conference to reveal the details of
the discussion and the views of members
during the meeting to vote down the
appointment of Prof Chan Man-mun ( 陳文
敏 ) to the university’s pro-vice
chancellorship ( 副校長 ).
 Council chairman Edward Leong Che-hung
released a statement in which he
condemned the action by Fung in
disclosing the Council’s deliberations.
 What are the value conflicts?
 What is the value priority assumed by Dr.
Leung?
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Analysis
 Billy Fung was aware of the
confidentiality system but
purposefully released the
meeting details

Do you
agree?

 Billy Fung’s behaviour was not

appropriate

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Exercises
 Sometimes it is not always best to be
completely honest. Some conclusions
are better left unsaid. For instance, if
you are talking to a friend and he
asks for your opinion about
something, the truth should be
avoided if there is no way to deliver it
without harming the relationship.

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Exercises
 The truth is not always necessary. If
you were a doctor and you had to
give your patient bad health news,
then it is important to maintain
honesty. However sometimes, in the
case of friendship, the honesty may
need some buffering.
 What are the value conflicts?
 What is the value priority assumed by the speaker?

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Exercises
 Eating healthy is important. Doctors and
physical fitness advisors tell you about
all the advantages of health foods. Then
why are these foods so expensive?
Companies selling these foods are
raising prices for simple things such as
fruits and vegetables. Six dollars for a
bag of salad should be an indicator that
the prices are too high.

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Exercsies
 People want to be healthy, but it seems
as if corporate America really does not
want to make that prospect cheap. You
should avoid wasting money just to eat
healthy; go buy those cheap frozen
vegetables at the grocery store!
 What are the value conflicts?

 What is the value priority assumed by the

speaker?
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Using this Critical Question
 As a critical thinker, your should
 identify the value assumptions
 evaluate and challenge whether the value
priorities are reasonable
 in open societies, which is more
important: confidentiality vs public right to
know?
 How can your priority be justified?

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Conclusion
 Questioning the assumptions is an important
but difficult skill in critical thinking
 You need a lot of practice before you can do
this well
 Read the related text book chapters for more
examples
 Asking the right questions, Chapter 5 and 6
(Required)
 An introduction to critical thinking and creativity,
Chapter 18 “Thinking about values”
(Supplementary)

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