M.V.

RAGHUNADH
Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE
NIT, Warangal – 506004.

raghu@nitw.ac.in
 INTRODUCTION
TO
MOBILE & CELLULAR
COMMUNICATIONS
 Wireless system
What is a wireless system?

 Provides communication without the

use of wire
 Computing and communication at
anytime and anyplace
 Small size, portable device
 Uses radio wave, to send voice, data,
internet and video signals
 Good energy management
 Access to resources
“ Mobile communications is not
Cellular communications but
Cellular communications is
Mobile communications ” .
Mobile Com 
Ex :Public emergency services
Police, Fire, Ambulance

Single frequency communications

over entire area using one BS
and many mobile vehicular
transceiver sets
Cellular Com 
Public com services with frequency

reuse over multiple cells in entire

area using one BS and many
cellular phones in every cell.
“ Portable communicators
are not mobile but
mobile communicators
are Portable ”
Communication devices exhibit following
Characteristics

a. Fixed & Wired:

Typical desktop PC, Telephone large, Data
Loggers  weight / high power

b. Mobile & Wired:

Today’s laptop PCs  mobile but connection to
company via wired line of PSTN & Modem

c. Fixed & Wireless:

WLL  last mile in PSTN, in house wireless
networks, local net in tradeshows.
d. Mobile & Wireless

Today’s Cell Phones, PDAs, Personal

Communicators

 Most interesting case, no cable restriction,

full mobility, roaming between cities
and even different networks

Ex: GSM , CDMA

> 900 million users worldwide

Applications:
1.Vehicles:

Cars with 

a) Digital Audio Broadcast (DAB) at 1.5 Mbps 

Music ,news, weather and GPS data
b) UMTS for Wireless Cell Telephony
– voice & Data at 384 kbps
c) Adhoc Networks with emergency services
Accidents, Maintenance Logistics.
d) Wireless Pico Nets PDA, Laptops, Mobile
Phones ,Bluetooth / Wi-Fi.
e) Rail / Air Traffic
2.Emergencies 
Ambulance  high quality wireless adhoc nets
– accidents, natural disasters.

3.Business 
Sales  Database consistency,
wireless LAN hot spots at
supermarkets, gas stations,
laptop connections via
LAN,DSL…
4.Infotainment 
Up-to-date info over wireless net
i. Travel guide
ii. Cash payment
iii. Adhoc gaming networks
5. Location Dependent Services 
Mobile computing and WLANs applications need to
know the mobile unit location.
a. Follow on Services  Call forwarding, e-mail,
multimedia conferencing.
b. Location aware Services  Printing service from a
hotel control room.
c. Privacy  Time dependent access/forwarding at
the will & wish of user
d. Info. Services Travel guide
e. Support services Caching of data on mobile
device via a wireless net access.
Wi-Fi
Stands for “Wireless Fidelity”
High-bandwidth category of wireless
communications
Short range (300-1600ft)
Used to connect laptops, PDAs, and even
workstations

Digital Cellular Telephony

CDMA, TDMA, GSM
Smart phones and some PDAs
Longer range than Wi-Fi
Mobile & Wireless Devices:
a. Sensors : Control state information sources
b. Embeded Controllers: Keyboards, mice, headset,
washing machine, TV set, …..
c. Pager : One or two line message service,
fast replaced by cell phone.
d. Mobile Phones : Vehicular Sets, Cell phones
e. PDA : Personal Communicators,
Pocket/Palm Computers
f. Notebook / Laptop : Portable PCs
 MOBILE, CELLULAR
&
PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Mobility : Mobility of Talker ( Transmitter )
Mobility of Listener ( Receiver )
Mobility of Both ( TX & RX )

Definition : Communication facility between

stationary and mobile or mobile and
mobile users ( units )

UserTypes : Walking Pedestrians

automobile computers
car, bus, train, plane, ship.
 What is Mobility?

• A device that moves

– Between different geographical locations
– Between different networks

• A person who moves

– Between different geographical locations
– Between different networks
– Between different communication devices
– Between different applications
 Device mobility
• Plug in laptop at home/work on Ethernet
– Wired network access only
– Network address changes
– May want access to information when no network is
available: hoard information locally
• Cell phone with access to cellular network
– Continuous connectivity
– Phone # remains the same (high-level network address)
– Network performance may vary from place to place
• Can we achieve best of both worlds?
– Continuous connectivity of wireless access
– Performance of better networks when available
• Laptop moves between Ethernet, WaveLAN and Metricom networks
– Wired and wireless network access
– Potentially continuous connectivity
– Network address changes
– Radically different network performance on different
networks
 People mobility
• Phone available at home or at work
– Multiple phone numbers to reach me
– Breaks in my reachability when I’m not in
• Cell phone
– Only one number to reach me
– Continuously reachable
– Sometimes poor quality and expensive connectivity
• Cell phone, networked PDA, etc.
– Multiple numbers/addresses for best quality
connection
– Continuous reachability
– Best choice of address may depend on sender’s
device or message content
 Mobility means changes
How does it affect the following?
• Hardware
– Lighter More robust Lower power
• Wireless communication
– Can’t tune for stationary access
• Network protocols
– Name changes ; Delay changes ; Error rate changes
• Fidelity
– High fidelity may not be possible
• Data consistency
– Strong consistency no longer possible
• Location/transparency awareness
– Transparency not always desirable
• Names/addresses
– Names of endpoints may change
• Security
– Lighter-weight algorithms
– Endpoint authentication harder
– Devices more vulnerable
 Example changes
• Addresses
– Phone numbers, IP addresses
• Network performance
– Bandwidth, delay, bit error rates, cost, connectivity
• Network interfaces
– PPP, eth0, strip
• Between applications
– Different interfaces over phone & laptop
• Within applications
– Loss of bandwidth triggers change from color to
B&W
• Available resources
– Files, printers, displays, power, even routing
 Enabling Technologies
• Software Defined Radios
• Advanced media access technology to connect different
cores to different access technologies
• Variable spreading factor ( VSP )
• All-IP networks and protocols
• Ad-Hoc Networking algorithms
• Ultra Wideband , variable power Hardware Radio
• Network-layer mobility protocols
• Smart antennae
• MIMO (Multi Input Multi Output) devices
• Open platform architectures
• Smart mediation devices for Handsets
• Smart mediation devices for overlay network
Goal of emerging mobile & PCS systems To enable
communication with any person, at any time, at any
place (Home office in public in Transit), in any form /
device ( Home /normal telephone, cellular/mobile
phone , PC phone, PDA, fax, Multimedia terminal).

On the basis of
“any time, any where, any one, any
service”

Information Services:
Voice, Video, Text, Fax ,Image, Data, Files
Technological Trends

• All Digital Optical Fiber or Satellite media ,

• Hyper media content
• Intelligent Networks
• Universal Reachability & Accessibility
• User specific & Interactive service
• Global Roaming & Interoperability
• Mobile ATM and Mobile Internet
• Mobile data and computing
• Guaranteed Quality of Service (QOS)
• Standardized Universal ID Numbers/ Addresses
• Personalization
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Short Wave Radio FM Broadcast
AM Broadcast Television Infrared wireless LAN

Cellular
Microwave

Extremely Very Low Medium High Very Ultra Super Infrared Visible Ultra- X-Rays
Low Low High High High Light violet

2.4 – 2.4835 GHz

GSM: 5 GHz
802.11b (11 Mbps)
US ISM: 902-928 MHz 802.11a (54 Mbps)
802.11g (54 Mbps)
Wireless Network Area Definitions
Courtesy of IEEE 802.15
GSM Press Kit. Jan. 2001

GPRS
CDMA
IEEE802.11
WAN HyperLan Bluetooth
WAN-MAN
PAN
MAN
MAN-LAN
LAN-PAN
Pico-Cell

~50km ~2km 0km ~10m

 Hierarchical Layers for 4G

IP-based backbone

Global layer Satellite

Regional layer DAB and DVB-T

National layer 2G, 3G Cellular

Local area layer Wireless LANs

Personal network layer Wireless PANs

Vertical Handover

Horizontal Handover
 Inter-Working

Billing SIP Proxy Signalling WAP Accounting ISP

VHE Server Gateway

The
Interne
Satellite FES
Context-aware information
Centre
IP backbone

Broadcast Networks
(DAB, DVB-T)
GSM /
GPRS
UMTS
IP-based
micro-mobility Wireless
LANs
ENABLING CONCEPTS
FOR
MOBILE & PERSONAL
COMMUNICATIONS.
These concepts enable us to provide Universal PCS
with standardized systems & services at local,
regional, national and international levels.

They are :

Terminal Mobility  with wireless Access

Personal Mobility  with personal Number
Service Portability  with Intelligent Network

These are for location independent availability of

customized telecom services.
TERMINAL MOBILITY
• The terminal mobility systems can locate and
identify a mobile terminal as it moves
• Allows a mobile terminal to access telecom
services from any location – even in movements
• Uses wireless Access
• User must carry wireless terminal and be within a
radio coverage area
• Functional parts reside on portable IC / Smart card
• Terminal and User have STATIC Relationship
• Terminal and Network have DYNAMIC Relation

• Call delivery and Billing are based on Terminal /

Mobile Station Number.
PERSONAL MOBILITY

• Terminal and user have DYNAMIC Relationship.

Call Delivery & Billing are based on Personal
Identity / Personal Number assigned to the user.

• Locate and identify the end users as they move

• Allows end users to access subscribed telecom

services on any terminal, any location

• More broader access whether fixed or wireless

SERVICE PORTABILITY

• Network is capable to provide subscribed services

at a terminal or location designated by the user.
• Depends on terminal capabilities
• Uses intelligent Network concepts
• Maintains User profile in a Database
• User can access, query, modify to manage &
control subscribed services.
• Intelligent services – seamless international
roaming
 CELLULAR CONCEPT
&
INITIAL IMPLEMENTATION
Conventional Mobile Tele phone System
A Land mobile system in which available frequency
spectrum is divided into mobile radio telephone
channels using FDM without reuse facility, serving an
area with large size..
A dedicated channel is allocated for each user,
whether uses it or not.
Principle of operation is similar to cellular radio
telephony
As a result, It has several limitations that are given
below.
1. Limited service capability

• Larger coverage area zones

• High Power Transmissions
• Re-initiation of call in every zone
(no auto handoff)
• One frequency per channel
• No. of active users is equal to No. of channels
allocated to zone

2. Poor Service Performance:

• Higher blocking probabilities due the smaller
number of radio channels.
3. Inefficient frequency spectrum Utilization

• Smaller Frequency Utilization factor

Mo = max. no. of customers/channel at Busy
Hour.

• Each channel can serve only one customer at a

time in whole area.
 SOLUTION
Cellular approach
• Reuse of frequencies
• Multiple Access
• Cell Splitting
• Smaller coverage area (cell)
Starting point :
AMPS by Bell Labs, 1983, USA
Cellular System :
A high capacity land mobile system in which
available spectrum is divided into discrete
channels, which are assigned in groups to
geographic cells covering an area and the
frequencies are reused, thus low power
transmissions.
Principle :

Divide large area into cells with 2 to 50 km

diameter, each cell allocated with a set of RF
channels
A cellular system: The tower represent base station
(BS) which provide radio access between mobile
users and the mobile switching center (MSC).

BS MS BS BS
Cellular Advantages:

• Lower Power Transmissions

• Frequency Reusability
• Multiple Access capability
• Lower Antenna Heights
• Unlimited capacity and range coverage
• Cell splitting & Micro cells
• Automatic hand off transparency
• Multi Level roaming
• Efficient Power control

• Handsets – Light weight, compact, Pocket held

• Digital Communication transceivers

• Value added & intelligent information services

• Mobile Multimedia broadband communication

• Minimal Blocking

• More than one license operator, Competition

• Better propagation models.

 CELLULAR
SYSTEM
ARCHITECTURE
Basic Cellular system components :

1. Mobile Station / Unit / Site (MS)

2. Cell site / Base station (BS)

3. Mobile Telephone switching office/ Centre

4. Data Links
Mobile Station : (MS)

Mobile station/unit contains a Transceiver, control

unit and an Antenna.

Cell Site : (MSC)

Cell site contains a fixed Base station that has a

tower antenna, Transceivers (BS) for MS and Fixed
links to MTSO
MTSO or MSC
• This is the mobile switching exchange
• The central coordinating system for all the cells
• Contains cellular switch, control computer, mobile
management software, user location mobile
management software, user location registers,
Interfaces and links to BS & PSTN.
• MTSO is the central administrator & Manager
• Cellular switch is Analog or Digital and switches the
calls to connect mobile – mobile or mobile – fixed
• Coverage area is partitioned into nearly hexagonal
shaped areas called radio cells
• Each cell is served by one Base station for radio
coverage of all mobile units in that cell.
• Radio Link carries the VOICE and SIGNALLING
information (Channels) between the MS and BS in
that cell only.
• Base stations are connected to MSC through fixed
circuits (cables or fiber or microwave)
• MSC interacts with a database of subscriber data
and location information, to provide dynamic
terminal (MS) location to the switching computer.
• MSC is connected to PSTN because majority of
calls originate from or terminate at fixed PSTN
phones.
• Every cellular system has some number of radio
channels for its use, depending on cellular standard
and RF band.

• The available radio channels are partitioned into

groups of channels, each group being allocated
to an individual cell.

• These individual group of channels can be reused in

distant cells without causing interference.
Radio System Planning:

• Cell size design

• Cell location identification/assignment
• Allocation of group of channels to each
cell
• Performance criteria
• Handoff mechanism
• Propagation modeling
• In each cell, one Radio Channel is set aside
permanently assigned to carry signaling information
between the cellular network (base station) and all
the mobile stations in that cell.

MS  BS Signaling Channel 
Location updating , call set up.
Paging response , user data

BS  MS Signaling Channel 
Operating parameters (identities)
Paging call, location updating, and control.
Location Updating
MS always monitors overhead information
broadcast by network on the signaling
channel
• MS updates the operating parameters as and when
necessary
• MS Checks Location information (area identity)
broadcast by new cell, if it is in new cell location.
• MS advices the network about its new location
• Then network updates its location registers.
• This location information is used to route / switch the
incoming calls or determining paging broadcast area
for MS.
Mobile station initialization:

• Whenever a user activates the receiver of Mobile

unit, the receiver scans SETUP CHANNEL list
designated.
• It selects a strongest one and locks to it
• Each site has one set up channel only. Thus
strongest channel selection is the nearest BS (Cell
site) selection.
• This process is called SELF LOCATION
• This is done in Idle State also, transparently to
user.
• But, it can’t provide location information to BS.
Thus BS must search for idle mobile unit by
paging.
• In future, registration scheme will be used, in
which, the vehicles (MS) must register/update
location regularly, as shown above.
Mobile originated call set up:

• Exact procedure depends on particular cellular

standard.
• More or less similar in principle
• User places/keys in the called telephoned number into
an originating register and checks for correctness in
LCD display.
• Then user pushes ‘SEND’ button.
• This call request is sent on the already set up channel
on the uplink signaling channel
 there is no dial tone at all.
• The BS receives this call request signal and sends a
request to MTSO (MSC) via high speed data link.
• BS selects an appropriate voice channel for the call
and sends a speech channel (number) allocation
message to mobile unit.
• MS now locks on to this allocated radio channel
• Network MSC proceeds now to set up the
connection to the called party.
 NETWORK ORIGINATED CALL SETUP
(Mobile Terminated Call)
• A Landline phone dials a mobile unit number
• The PSTN exchange recognizes that the number is a
Mobile number
• PSTN exchange forwards this request to MTSO
(MSC)
• MTSO first establishes current location area for the
called mobile through signaling between Home
Location Register (HLR) and Visiting Location
Register (VLR).
• This process allows the call to be routed to the current
serving MTSO (MSC)
• The serving MTSO initiates a paging message over
the downlink-signaling channel toward the cells
contained in the paging area, through a cell search
algorithm
• Each cell site further transmits this paging signal on
its own set up channel.
• If mobile is in ON state, it receives paging message,
recognizes its own identification number in it and
locks to the strongest set up channel (nearest BS).
• Only the intended mobile now sends back a
response to its nearest cell site (BS) on the
signaling channel.
• Now the respective BS, sends a speech channel
allocation message to the mobile and informs the
network so that connection can be established.
• The mobile unit tunes to the assigned voice channel
tend initiates user alert of an incoming call
Call Termination:
• When mobile user turns OFF the transmitter, a
signaling tone is sent to the BS.
• Both the sides free up the voice channel.
• BS and MTSO recognize this and disconnect the
connections and refresh the switch.
• MS resumes monitoring the pages through the
strongest setup channel, i.e. expects a paging
message from nearest / strongest BS (current cell)
Hand Off:
• During a call, serving BS monitors mobile signal
strength
• If signal strength falls below a threshold, Network
requests all the neighboring cell BS to measure
signal strength from this mobile.
• If any nearest BS indicates better quality and
strength than the current serving BS, the MSC
commands the current BS to send a signaling
message to the mobile, asking it to retune to a free
channel in neighboring cell.
• The MS retunes to new channel and network MSC
switches call to new BS
 Data and Communications
Convergence
❚ Media
Streaming video
Video on demand
Interactive video services
❚ Telecommunication Internet
PSTN and cellular services
Video telephony
Wideband data services
❚ Computer
Broadband Wireless
Internet access
Electronic mail
Mobile computing
Convergence of High Speed Internet & Mobility
A major driver of future wireless
• The Wireless Industry has grown at enormous pace
over the past decade.

• More than half a billion subscribers to cellular services

are enjoying the benefits of staying connected while on
the move.

• With the growth in Internet , a wide range of services are

accessed by users through a wired infrastructure.

• The introduction of mobile Internet brought about by the

convergence of Mobile & Internet technologies is the
future objective.
 Wireless Network Evolution
❚ First generation (1G): Analog voice systems
❙ No standardization
❚ Second Generation (2G): Digital voice systems
❙ Currently deployed systems
❙ CDMA, GSM (Global System for Mobile communication)
PDC (Japan) D-AMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone
System)
❙ PCS Systems
❚ Second Generation – advanced (2.5G): Combining voice
❚ and data communications
❙ Providing enhanced data rate
❙ Two basic technologies:
❘ GSM-based (high baud rate)
❘ GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
❘ Utilizes voice time slots to send packet traffic
❘ An overlay over the existing voice system
❙ Should really be called 2.1G!!
 Third Generation (3G)
❚ Two basic proposals to handle voice and data
❙ Ericsson: Universal Mobile Telecommunications systems (UMTS)
❘ Compatible with European GSM
❘ Backed by ETSI and Japan
❙ Qualcom: CDM2000
❘ Not compatible with GSM
❘ Compatible for IS-95 (supported by U.S)
❚ 3G Standards
❙ 1999 UMTS took over and an agreement was made over setting
some standards
❚ Major competing technologies
❙ Bluethood
❙ Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.x standards) – also known as WiFi
❘ Short range wireless communications
❘ Highly utilized and very popular: offices, airports, coffee shops,
universities and schools
❘ Two basic modes of operations:
• Ad-hoc networking: computers send data to one another
• Access point:: sending data to the base station
 Fourth Generation (4G)
❚ Supporting heterogeneous multitude of systems
❙ Includes multiple networks:
❘ Digital video broadband
❘ Digital audio broadband
❘ Wireless LAB, Bluethood-based networks
❙ Open communication network: infrastructure independent which can
access to any services and applications
❙ Complete compatibility between wireless and wired networks
through gateways
❚ Supports statistical multiplexing of heterogeneous data over-the-air
❙ Latency, noisy environment, unpredictable discontinuities and loss,
etc.
❚ High-speed wireless transmission over the air
❙ High performance physical layer
❘ 20Mbps (2G: 28Kbps, 3G: 2Mbps)
❙ Scarce bandwidth availability
❘ Efficient frequency spectrum utilization
❘ Efficient hand off
❘ Dynamic bandwidth allocation
❘ Advanced digital transmission technology (modulation, low power
devices, etc.)
 G-points in Mobile Comms History

2G 2.5G
1G digital
analog digital (analog)
- voice + data
- voice only - voice (data)
- flexible
- inflexible - inflexible
- optimised
- not optimised - optimised
- transparent
- very transparent - transparent

3G 3.5G 4G
digital digital digital/analog?
- data + voice - more data (IP) - even more data
- very flexible - very flexible - very flexible
- ‘optimisable’ - ‘optimisable’ - ‘optimisable’
- not transparent - not transparent - transparent
 GSM
 Global System for Mobile
Communications
 Digital cellular system for voice, fax, data
 >200 million customers
 >320 networks
 137 countries
 Annual growth rate of 100% - 200%
 4 new customers every second

Greater “presence” than MacDonalds!

 Countries with GSM

with GSM

no GSM
Wireless Networks

Motivated by people-on-the-go
- PCs availability, Internet usage,
Mobile life
Aimed is to establish wide-area
voice data communications
Includes mobile systems (cellular
telecommunication systems)
Wireless Network Area Definitions

GSM Courtesy of IEEE

GPRS 802.15 Press Kit.
CDMA Jan. 2001

WAN IEEE802.11 Bluetooth

WAN-MAN HyperLan
PAN
MAN
MAN-LAN
LAN-PAN
Pico-Cell

~50km ~2km 0km ~10m

WLAN Network Architecture
Mobile
Agent
Laptop

Access
point

Fixed Fixed
Workstation Workstation
Mobile Mobile
Agent Agent

Wired Network
Workstation
PDA Access Access
point point
Printer
Fixed
Workstation

DBMS
 WAN:
everywhere outside of the
hotspots, where wireless

GPRS, 3G – UMTS
Wide Area Internet connection are
provided
< 400 Kb/s – xx Mls, Kms
MAN:
Building to Building
Metropolitan Area connection
MMDS; LMDS; 802.16
10M > 155 Mb/s - Kms
LAN:
Local Area collection of secure “hot spot”
connections, providing
802.11b; 802.11a; 802.11g broadband access to the
2M > 54Mb/s – > 300 ft, 100 m Internet
Personal Area
Bluetooth; PAN:
collection of secure
< 800 Kb/s – < 30 ft, 10 m connections between devices
in a
“very” local area
 Convergence
Convergence of Cellular Mobile Networks and WLANs
Benefits
For cellular mobile operators
 Higher bandwidths.
 Lower cost of networks and equipment.
 The use of licence-exempt spectrum.
 Higher capacity and QoS enhancement.
 Higher revenue.

For users
 Access to broadband multimedia services with lower

cost and where mostly needed (e.g. in Central Business

Districts and Business Customer Premises).
 Inter-network roaming.
 These future networks will have
the following inherent
characteristics :

1. Broadband Internet access.

2. High (guaranteed) QoS.

3. Seamless access – fixed and mobile.

4. Intelligence.
 The Internet is the driver
World Internet users (1999 – 2004)
Million 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

USA 97 118 135 145 148 152

Japan 23 32 38 43 47 50

Asia Pac 32 70 104 120 135 150

W.Europe 54 81 114 145 164 179

ROW 35 72 105 118 130 140

Total 241 373 496 571 624 671

 Mobile Broadband Network
Categories

PAN Personal Area Networks

W-LAN Wireless Local Area Networks

W-WAN Wireless Wide Area Networks

 Wireless Networking Standards
Overview
Market Name GPRS/GSM Wi-Fi Bluetooth ZigBee
IrDA UWB
Standard 1xRTT/CDMA 802.11b 802.15.1 802.15.4 802.15.3a
Application Wide Area Web, Email, Cable Monitoring &
Cable
Focus Voice & Data Video Replacement Control
replacement
System
16MB+ 1MB+ 250KB+ 4KB - 32KB ?
Resources
?
Battery Life
1-7 .5 - 5 1-7 100 - 1,000+
(days) ?

Network Size 1 32 7 255 / 65,000

1
Bandwidth
64 - 128+ 11,000+ 720 20 - 250
(KB/s) 9.6-115
Transmission
1,000+ 1 - 100 1 - 10+ 1 - 100+
Range (meters) 1-5
Success Reach Speed, Cost, Reliability,
Metrics quality Flexibility Convenience Power, Cost
 Future PAN Technologies
Technology Max Introduction Advantages Dis- Bottomline
Speed advantages
Bluetooth 723.2Kbps 2001 Low cost Interference, Replace
security cables
Infrared 115Kbps In use Very low LOS Replaced by
cost Bluetooth
802.15.1 723.2Kbps 2002 Low cost Interference, Formalized
security Bluetooth
802.15.3 >20Mbps 2003 High data Expensive, Case not
High rate rates not proven yet
backwards
compatible
Time >20Mbps 2006 High data Not Under hyped.
Modulated rates, no approved, Potentially
Ultra dedicated expensive revolutionary
frequency technology.
Wideband
(UWB)

Source: Gartner (2001)

 W-WAN Categories
Analogue • AMPS • TACS
(1G) • N-AMPS • NMT

• GSM • CDMA/cdmaOne/IS-95A
Digital • CDPD • TDMA / IS-136
(2G) • PDC

• GPRS • EDGE Compact • PDC-P

2.5G • HSCSD • CDMA / IS-95B
• EDGE Classic • cdma2000 1xMC

• W-CDMA • CDMA 1 XTREME

3G • cdma2000 3xMC
• CDMA 1x EVDV

4G • Undefined
Technology Max Introductio Advantages Dis- Bottomline
Speed n advantage
s
GPRS 171.2Kbps 2001 Packet data Data rates Will be most
for GSM world may successful
disappoint technology
through
2005

HSCSD 115Kbps In use Dedicated Low Will not be

channels deployment, mainstream
expensive
EDGE 384Kbps 2003 Higher data Expensive, Will not be
Classic rates for both little terminal able to
packet & support compete
circuit with W-
CDMA.
EDGE 250Kbps 2002 Higher data AT&T (main Unlikely to
Compact rates for both proponent) be successful
packet & has changed
circuit TDMA direction
networks
 Mobile Transactions
Transaction - Based
• Mobile Banking
• Mobile Stock Trading Technology Enabler:
• Travel Reservation & Payment
(Rail, LRT, Bus, Flights, Taxi, Dual – Slot Hand Phone
Hotel, Insurance)
• Entertainment Reservation & Payment
(Cinema, Theater, Concerts)
• Pre-Paid Voucher Recharge
• Vending Machine Purchases
• Electronic Cash Download
• Payment of Utility Bills
(Electricity, Water, Astro, etc)
• Other Payments
(Restaurant Bills, Takeaways, Parking)
• Online Auctions 2nd
• Online Shopping (eg. CDs, Books) SIM Smart • Credit Card
• Music MP3 Downloads • Debit Card
Card Card
• eCash Card
• Customisable with SIM Toolkit • Pre-Paid Card
• Remote Upgrading • Loyalty Card
 NEXT GENERATION MOBILE VISION & CONCEPT

• Ubiquitous connectivity for slow and fast moving users,

accessing high speed internet and related multiple
services at affordable cost and reasonable QOS
• Cooperation between content providers and Wireless
access providers- Virtual operators
• Multi-Media, Multi-Environment, Multi-Operator
Environment
• User Driven, User Controlled, Context Aware Applications
• Convergence of services, aggregation and inter-working of
existing and emerging technologies and networks
• Vertical and Horizontal Seamless Handover
Higher Data, Superior Radio Resource Management,
Seamless mobility, Aggregation of Generations
4G
Cost efficient, Higher Data
3G evolution
Multimedia messages, multiple services
3G
Packet Data, On
2G evolution
Digital Voice, data
2G
Analog Voice
1G
80’s 90’s 00’s 10’s
 Evolution towards better Data rates
and higher mobility
Mobility

4G Research
V E-Mail 4.2 sec in 2G to 0.002s in 4G
Targets
Movie Download 926 hours in 2G to
1minute in 4G
N
TIO
OLU
V
d

E ms
E
v e
CDMA 1X ,

3G yste
vol
EDGE

CD

S
M
A2
P 0 00
,W
CD
M 802.11a,g
1X A
EV
1X

-D
V W-LAN
EV

S 802.11b
DO

0.1 1 10 100 1000

 Convergence of High Speed Internet & Mobility
A major driver of future wireless
• The Wireless Industry has grown at enormous pace over
the past decade.

• More than half a billion subscribers to cellular services

are enjoying the benefits of staying connected while on
the move.

• With the growth in Internet , a wide range of services are

accessed by users through a wired infrastructure.

• The introduction of mobile Internet brought about by the

convergence of Mobile & Internet technologies is the
future objective.
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

 Handling multimedia Traffic

Data, Video, Voice
 Seamless Services on the move
User friendly smart devices
 Diversified wireless access
Under One Umbrella, Seamless access
 Advanced Mobility Management
Independent of the IP version
Proactive, always-on
Intelligent integrated control
 WIRELESS
TRANSMISSION
 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
Mobile Radio (Wireless) signals undergo many
impairments during transmission / propagation through
the radio channel (atmosphere / free space / any
medium)
Frequencies
• Radio signals are modulated signals with carrier
frequency allotted in any of the frequency bonds.
• ITU Region
1. Europe, Middle East, Africa
2. Greenland, North & South America
3. Far East, Australia, New Zealand
• LAND / SATELLITE CELLULAR RADIO BANDS
SIGNALS: Mostly SINUSOIDAL(AM/FM)
or its variants (ASK, PSK)
spectrum has side bonds or
frequencies.
Fundamental + Harmonics

90° Ф = m sinФ
Phase

Zero phase
f
) Ф
I = m cosФ
ANTENNAS:
Energy Translators /Couplers from TX to CH.
Hence Radiation pattern.
Ideal Isotropic: Equal power in all directions
y

SMART ANTENNAS→ Use DSP

 z
Real Directive: DIPOLE λ /2
omni directional uniform x
radiation in one plane
fig.of 8 in other two planes y y

DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA: x z

Main lobe in only y y z

one direction
x z x
SECTORIZED ANTENNA:
Several directed antennas z z
combined on a single pole x x

3 sector 8 sector
 SIGNAL  Onlyone direction of
PROPAGATION transmission unlike wired
transmission

 Fixed error limited

transmission range
d
 Fixed error limited
detection range

 Interference range
 SIGNAL IMPAIRMENTS
 Free space Loss or Los loss

Squared law  pr α 1/d2

- Due to equal distribution of
energy Over the surface of
energy sphere.
 Path Loss : Signal attenuation due to
rain,fog,dust,smog,air,snow
Signal penetration
       medium attenuation
      frequency 
Blocking or Shadowing :
- due to large obstacles

Reflection : When λ < size of obstacle

- Mobile signal reflects from

sky scrapers, Walls,
Trucks,Mountains,Towers,
Birds.
Reflected signal is not as
strong as the original.
Reflection 
Signal strength 
Scattering : obstace size ≤ λ
Incoming signal is scattered in multiple directions
and become weak signals, due to many objects in
atmosphere or space .

Diffraction :
Similar to scattering Radio waves get deflected at
edges signals become weak
Multi Path Effects :

Delay Spread
POWER
ISI Fading –
Short term

t
Long term
MULTIPLE ACCESS OR MULTIPLEXING :
 Means of combining several user signals onto a
common channel
 Multiple users access and share a common channel
with no interference (Hope fully)
 Simple ex :1. Athletic tracks / Swimming lanes
2. Many cars/Buses/Trucks share a
multiple lane road due to separation
of lanes
Space Division Multiplexing
 However, needs a special identification and control
mechanism for proper MUX & DEMUX.
 For Wireless Communication,4 types of Multiplexing
SPACE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING :
 Assignment of space to each communication
channel i.e., actually a source signal, with minimum
interference and a maximum medium utilization
 Assume 3D space represented as shown

CH k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

code c c
time t t

s1 frequency s2 s3 f
Κ
f
 Coverage Space is represented via circles
 Channels K1, K2, K3 can be mapped into three spaces S1,
S2, S3 with clear separation and no overlap
What about K4, K5, K6 ?
 Analogous to road traffic separate lanes
Analog fixed Telephone Network
separate wire pair
/ local loop
 For wireless, SDM implies , a separate sender for
each channel with wide space separations.
ex: FM radio stations.
• Problems arise if two or more channels occupy the
same space
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
(FDM / FDMA)
• Subdivision of frequency dimension into several
non-overlapping frequency bounds or slots.
c • Each channel Ki is allotted its
own (dedicated) band
f
• Sender uses this band
S1 S2 S3 continuously
• Guard spaces do exist for no
interferences.
t Ex:- Am radio stations
• Receivers must TUNE into the specific senders.
• Draw backs : Tremendous wasted frequency as user may not
transmit all the time (usually less than 1Hr per day).
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TDM(A)
• A channel Ki is given whole bandwidth, but only for
a fixed period of time
• Time dimension is partitioned into several Time
slots
• Each channel is allocated one Time slot.
c
t1
S1
t2 f
S2
t3 • Needs precise
S. 3
. synchronizatio
.
n in timings for
t TX or Rx.
HYBRID-FTDMA:
• A channel Ki use a certain frequency band fi for only a
certain amount of time ti
• More robust against frequency selective
interference / jamming.
• Better protection against Tapping / Intruder.
• But needs coordination between senders.
c

t
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING : CDM(A)

 All channels use same

frequency at the same c
time.
 Separation through
coding each channel
with its own code.
 Guard space is the
distance in code space
t f

Ex:- ORTHOGONAL CODES

 Due to VITERBI.
Ex:- Different telephone calls use same band width
but different languages (Codes), at same
time.If language is same, then SDM is needed.
 Thus secret codes (Languages) provide security
 Code space is huge. Hence better protection
against interference and tapping .
 However, the intended receiver must know the
code and also must synchronize with Tx for correct
decoding .
 AM
ANALOG
MODULATION FM
BINARY ASK, PSK, FSK
DIGITAL
M - ary MSK, QAM, GMSK,
QPSK, DQPSK

Analog Base
band signal
Digital
Data Digital Analog
Modulation Modulation
101101001

Radio
Carrier
SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION
 Developed for secured communication
 Means of transmitting a data sequence that
occupies larger bandwidth than the original base
hand
 Spreading of bandwidth is through the use of a
code that is independent of data
 Chief Advantages: 1. Resistance to narrow
band interference or
jamming
2. Multiple Access
Communication.
 Purposeful bandwidth spread to make the signal to possess
noise like appearance so as to blend into the back ground
noise.
Power P P P

f f f
i) ii ) iii )
P P

f f
iv ) v)
STEP i) Narrow band user input data
ii) Tx Spreads the signal into a wide band
signal. But energy is same as original.
iii) A Wide band interference and
Narrowband interference get added
to wide band signal during transmission
iv) Receiver dispreads the signal into
narrowband. Thus narrow band
interference gets spread and wide band
interference gets left as it is.
v) Receiver uses a BPF to band limit the
user signal to original bandwidth and yield
high SNR
 MOBILE RADIO SIGNAL PROPAGATION &
ENVIRONMENT
Mobile radio signals propagating through a
communication medium are subjected to many
changes or modifications.
 Propagation path loss :-
- Due to beam Divergence (Free space Loss)
- Proportional to 1/d2
Terrestrial Losses :-
Terrain Dependent (Path Loss)
- Texture, roughness of terrain tends
to dissipate propagated energy.
• Scattering and Multipath effects :
- Signal gets scattered at ≤ λ obstacle points
and travel in multipaths.
- Result is different delay spreads of signal.
- Thus severe FADING of the received signal
(sum total of multipath signals).
- Because of low mobile antenna height and
near ground communication.
• Instantaneous Signal Strength :

S(t)
MS Stationary

avg Pr
m(t)
Local mean
MS moving r(t)

Time or
distance
• Depends on whether Mobile station (MS) is in
movement or stationary.

• Fading is always present due to multipath effects

due to multiple scattering points, reflection points,
dissipations.

• Delay spread is the smearing of received signal

due to lengthening of time period as a result of
different multipath signals arriving with different
phases.
• Short term fading is obtained by

r0(t) = r(t) - m(t) In db r0(t)

- multipath fading

Received Long term - Rayleigh fading

fading - due to multiple
reflections from
r(t) = r0(t) m(t) Model
buildings, structures.
m(t)
- Local mean long
term fading due to
terrain contour
• Signal fades about 40 dB
• Nulls around λ/ 2
• Rate of fading α vehicle speed.
PROPAGATION PATH LOSS:
• Due to the presence of radio wave scatterers along
the path.
• No. of scatterers depend on the contour variations,
terrain roughness
T BS antenna MS antenna
▼ ▼
Snell’s law
▲

θ( )θ
Ф • Therefore changes in the
propagation as a result of
specular Reflection, Diffuse
T
Reflection and Diffraction.
Specular Reflection from smooth flat and
slopy terrains :
• Occurs when radio waves encounter a smooth
interface between two dissimilar media and linear
dimension of interface is larger than λ
Ex: Mirror reflection defined by Snell's law.
Elevation
 • Reflected wave at point θ
h1 due to reflection of incident
wave from BS antenna T
h1 can be thought of as
▼
originated from a fictitious
image antenna TI and
passed through the surface
Distance without refraction.
 Diffuse Reflection:
• Occurs when radio waves encounter a rough
textured surface with roughness of order of λ
• Unlike specular reflection, this scatters energy and
focus a divergent radio path.
1
hp <
2 1 1
( + )
λ d1 d2
BS LOS
€ 
MS
LOS  ▼
h1 LOS h2

d1 d2
• Hygen’s principle explains this.
• In tensing of signals is smaller than that of
specular reflected wave
• Both these reflections correspond to LOS
propagation of reflected signals.
Diffraction:
• Occurs when the propagation path is obstructed by
the features of an intervening terrain between two
antennas.
•Thus out of sight propagation.
• Attenuation depends on
Elevation
whether obstruction extends
through the path or protrudes
into LOS path.
BS • Knife edge diffraction modals
€
h1 are used.
hp
▼
l h2
Distance
 Path Loss : Propagation frequency distance
►
Path Loss
►
Ә1 (
100m ▼
► 3m
Ә2 (
> 2 km

Ә1 - incident angle / elevation angle

Ә2 - reflected angle

Propagation path loss is 40 dB / decade or 10 km.

Received carrier powered is inversely proportional to R4.

-4 - For Mobile Radio Channel.

C αR
α R -2 - For Free space Radio Channel.
-γ - For Real Mobile radio model
αR 2<γ<5
FADING:
• Antenna height of Mobile unit is less than its
surroundings.
• Carrier signal wavelength is smaller than sizes of
surrounding structures.
Result : Multipath Fading due to net sum of multiple path
arriving signals with different phase.

Fading fluctuation range about 40 dB.

(10 dB above, 30 dB below avg / mean).
λ
• Nulls of fluctuation at the base band at about every
2
in space, but not with same levels.
• Rate of fluctuation α vehicle speed.
Multi path fading occurs in
Three situations :

1. Mobile unit and surrounding scatterers are still /

stationary

2. Static Multipath Mobile unit standing still scatterers

moving

3. Mobile unit and scatterers moving.

Static Multipath Signal :
N
s(t) = ∑ai s0(t −τi )
i =1
{ i 2 Π f 0 ( t - τ ) + i Φ 0}
s(t) = x ( t - τ ) e
- j 2 Π f 0 ∆ τi
Envelope x(t) = a0 ∑ ai e
ai → attenuation factor of ith path.
N signal paths,
τi → Propagation time
∆τi → additional relative delay on i th path.
Case 2 : MS still τi , a are
i uniquely different
scatterers along ith path at any instant.
moving cars
j Φ 0 - j 2 Π f0 t
∴ s(t) = x(t) e e
- j2 Πf0τ i(t)
x(t) = ∑ a0 ai(t) e
- jψ (t)
= A(t) e = a0 {R - js}
A(t) = a0 R + S 2 2

-1 S
ψ(t) = Tan
R
Case 3 : MS Moving – a) Scatters are absent
s0(t) b) only one scatterer present
▼ v c) Many scatterers present
θ near MS.

2π s(t) = a0 Exp [ j ( ω0t + φ0 − β vt cosθ ) ]

β=
λ
Doppler effect contributes additional frequency due
to movement of Mobile
v
Voltage fdoppler = fm cos θ = cos θ
λ
= ± depending on direction of travel

X(t)
 Thus concept of standing waves is applied to radio
signals to understand the multipath effects.
A resultant signal due to an incident signal and a
perfect scatterer reflected signal, reaching a mobile
of speed V is
j [ ω0 t + φ0 - β vt] [ j ( ω0 t + φ0 + β vt - ω0 τ ) ]
s(t) = a0 e - a0 e
The envelope of S(t) looks like a standing wave pattern.

2
(
=

τ 0
s
2

4
2

t
(
β

)
v

a
-

∴ Fading Frequency →
2

i
0
)

n
t

2V/λ
 Scatterers (Houses)
As a mobile unit
proceeds in a
▼ street, it is passing
v through an avenue
of scatterers as
shown.
Highest Doppler Frequency fd is
v v
fm = max ( fd ) = max ( cosθ ) =
λ λ
W(f)

v
fd
2
λ
Why 800 MHz Band?
ITU - T and FCC chose 800 MHz initially because.
- Severe spectral limitations at lower frequency
Bands
- Maritime (ship) mobile service at 160 MHz
- Fixed station services from 30 to 100 MHz
- FM and VHF/UHF TV Bands from 80-600 MHz
- No Mobile radio transmission beyond 10 GHz
due to propagation path loss, multipath fading and
rain loss.
- 800 MHz allocated to educational TV Channels
was heavily under utilized.
Even though not an ideal frequency for mobile radio,
the 800 MHz band demonstrated the feasibility.
History of 800 MHz spectrum:
1958 -Bell lab proposal for 75 MHz system at 800
MHz.
1974 -FCC allocated 40 MHz spectrum for one
cellular operator licensed per market area.
1980 -FCC revised its policy and introduced
competition with two licensed carriers per
service area of course this resulted in trunk
efficiency degradation
 FCC assigned frequencies in 20 MHz groups, as

Ban Mobile Base System

A 824-835,845-846.5 869-880, 890-891.5 non wire line.

B 835-845, 846.5-849 880-890, 891.5-894

Wire line

1986 – FCC added 5 MHz to each band.

old 333 + new 83 = 416 channels per band
with 30 KHz per channel.
TRUNKING EFFICIENCY:
No. of calls per hour per cell =
Φ = Offered traffic load / average calling time
Trunking efficiency degradation factor

η = {φOnecarrier – φ Multi carrier } / φOnecarrier

η%
30 5 ca
reer/
mark
e t
20
2 career/m
10 arket

0 1 2 5 10Blocking30
probability %
 UNIQUENESS OF MOBILE
RADIO ENVIRONMENT
Propagation path loss increases with
- Frequency
- distance θ1  elevation angle
θ2  incident angle
h
▼
Dire
ct path
Re
fle
30 – 100 m cte
d pa
θ1( ▼
th
θ2 (
2 km d
Cell antenna height: 30
-100 m
Mobile antenna height:
Received carrier Power C =α R3m -4

Difference in Powers C1 R2 - 4
=( )
C2 R1
R1
∆ C = C2 - C1 in dB = 40 log
R2
General Rule
=>40 dB/dec path loss
Δc = - 40dB
 R1
Free Space- c α R -2 ∆C = 20 log = 20 dB/dec
R2
R1
∆C = 40 log = 40 dB/dec
Mobile radio CH- c α R-4 R2
Received signal fading levels:
10 dB above and 30 dB below mean.
- R2
CDF P(R) = R e
− (R) = βν × η
lcr Level crossing rate η R
2π
afd Average fading duration - 2π -
t (R) = × tR
βν
 PATH LOSS MODEL
• Different, often complicated, models are used for different environments.

• A simple model for path loss, L, is

L= Pr =K 1
f dα
2
Pt

where Pr is the local mean received signal power

Pt is the transmitted power
d is the transmitter-receiver distance
f is frequency,
K is a transmission constant.

The path loss exponent α = 2 in free space;

2 ≤ α ≤ 4 in typical
environments.
 PATH LOSS LIMITATIONS

• The received signal-to-noise power ratio, SNR, is

Pr KP 1
SNR = = • αt
Pn d NoB
where No is the one-sided noise power spectral density
B is the signal bandwidth.
• Given the performance requirement SNR ≥ SNRo,
the path loss imposes limits on the bit rate and the signal coverage.

KPt KPt 1/α

B≤ or d ≤
( )
dα NoSNRo NoBSNRo
 SHADOW FADING
• The received signal is shadowed by obstructions such as
hills and buildings.
• This results in variations in the local mean received
signal power,

Pr (dB) = Pr (dB) + Gs

where Gs ~ N(0, σ s2 ), 4 ≤ σ s ≤ 10 dB.

• Implications
– nonuniform coverage
– increases the required transmit power
 First order statistics of Fading => Average power
CDF, BER
∴ independent of time

Second order statistics of Fading =>lcr, afd,

word Error Rate
∴ time/velocity dependent
_
2
- A A2
Rayleigh Fading : CDF P(x ≤ A) = 1- e

_
P(y ≤ L) = 1− e −L L
NOISE LEVEL IN CELLULAR BANDS:

THERMAL NOISE  -129 dBm at B = 30 KHz, T=290K

IGNITION NOISE  -124 to –104 dBm at B=30 KHz,

T=290K

Ni + (Na G)
AMPLIFIER NOISE  NF =
KTB
DELAY SPREAD
• Base station sends an impulse signal to the mobile station.
error
s0(t) = a0 s(t)

BS a0
Antenna 1 3
▼
t

τ 1 τ2 τ3 τ4 t
4
▼

4 scatter case Delay spread N=4

 • Because of multipath scattering, the impulse gets reflected
many times and thus many impulses (echo's) arrive at
mobile unit at different times.

a0
N>>4
t
∆
N-scatter case delay spread
• Received impulse signal is

s(t) = a0 ∑ aj δ(t - τ ) e jωt

jωt
= E(t) e
• As number of scatterers (N) increases, the received impulse
sequence becomes a continuous signal pulse, with a pulse
length Δ (called DELAY SPREAD).
• Delay envelopes contain multiple peaks.
• Shortest path signal need not necessarily produce highest
peak as the scatterer could be absorb in nature.
• Mean delay time d is the first moment or average.
∞
d =∫t E(t) dt
0
• Standard deviation or delay spread Δ is
t=0 → Leading edge of
∞
envelope E(t).
∆ = ∫ t E(t)dt - d
2 2 2

0
 DELAY SPREAD
FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERPRETATION
H(f)
Bs = signal bandwidth ≈ 1/T
Bs

1 f
2τ

• τ small flat fading

T
• τ large frequency-selective fading
T
 Parameter Open Urban Suburban
Area Area Area
Mean Delay Time d, μs 0.2-0.5 1.5-2.5 0.1-2.0
Path Length, km 20–300 450-750 30-600
Max. Delay Time 0.5-2 5-12 0.3-7
(-30dB)
Path Length, Km 0.5-1 1.5-3.6 0.9-2.1
Range of delay spread 0.1-2.0 1-3 0.2-2
Δi, μs
Mean Delay Spread <0.2 3 0.5

Delay spread is assumed independent of frequency.

 DOPPLER SPREAD
• A measure of the spectral broadening caused
by the channel time variation.
v
fD ≤
λ

Example: 900 MHz, 60 mph, fD = 80 Hz

5 GHz, 5 mph, fD = 37 Hz

• Implications
– signal amplitude and phase decorrelates after a
time period ~ 1/fD

8C32810.87-Cimini-7/98
COHERENCE BANDWIDTH:
• Bandwidth in which either the amplitudes or the phases of
two received signals have high degree of similarity or
correlated.
• Different delays in two fading signals that are closely spaced
in frequency can cause the two signals to become correlated.
• The frequency spacing that allows this condition depends on
the delay spread Δ .
• This frequency interval is called coherence or correlation
Bandwidth Bc.
 E(t)
Specular component

Scattered component
t
d dt Δ
Channel input response model

Correlation C(f)
function
Scattered component

f
Coherence bandwidth
1 1
Bc = or
Bc ≈
2Π Δ AM 8Δ
• A typical definition of Bc → 1 FM
= PM
4ΠΔ
NOISE IN MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL:

THERMAL NOISE

WIDEBRAND NARROWBAND

WHITE NOISE GAUSSIAN WHITE NOISE

n(t) = nc(t) + jn s(t)

 HUMAN MADE NOISE

URBAN SUBURBAN

EXTERNAL NOISE

SOLAR ATMOSPHERIC GALACTIC

 NF
atmospheric

UR
SU BA
B N
UR
RU BA
RA N
L INTERNAL
RECEIVER

GA
0 RUR
AL Q
LA
CT
UITE IC
SOLA
R
2 4 6 8 100 1000 105 109 f
-10 10

Mean Noise Figure Fa : 28 db / decade slopes for all.

Automotive Traffic Noise Power increases with traffic
density decreases with frequency
 ELEMENTS OF CELLULAR MOBILE
RADIO SYSTEM DESIGN

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM:

CONCEPT  efficient Spectrum Utilization
Major Elements of System Design 
1. Frequency Reuse Channels
2. Co channel Interference Reduction Factor
3. Carrier-Interference Ratio
4. Handoff Mechanism
5. Cell Splitting
Limitation / constraint In system design
 Frequency Resource

Challenge / goal  greatest no. of customers with

a specified system quality.
Ex :- Max. no. of calls/hour/cell Q
Max. No. of frequency Channels /cell - N

Q depends on
- cell size
- traffic conditions
Ex :- A BUSY Traffic area of 12 Km radius is divided into seven
2 Km cells. Assume a traffic situation with the busiest traffic cell
cover 4 freeways and 10 heavy traffic streets, with a total length
of
• 64 Km of TWO 8 lane roads
• 48 Km of Two 6 lane freeways
• 588 Km of forty three 4 lane roads
average spacing of cars is 10m during busy periods. One half
cars have phones and eight tenths of them make a call (ηc= 0.8)
during the busy hour.
Total length of roads = 64 + 48 + 588 = 700km
700km
Total number of cars = = 70000
10m
70,000
No.of calls in busy hour = × 0.8 = 28,000
2
MAX. No. of Frequency Channels per cell (N)
• depends on average calling time T
• depends on maximum calls per hour per cell Qi
• Determined from a plot or Table that shows
N,B and A

• OFFERED TRAFFIC LOAD =

Q IT
A= Erlangs
60
Problems in wireless communication

• Available unlicensed spectrum allocation

(government regulation)
• Only low transmission power levels allowed
(No brute force possible: strong signal in
narrow band)
• Multi-path propagation echoes
• Interference
• Noise
 RADIO ENVIRONMENT

• Path Loss
• Shadow Fading
• Multipath
• Interference
• Infrared Versus Radio

• Path Loss Limit the Bit Rate

• Shadow Fading and/or Coverage
• Multipath
 FREQUENCY REUSE

BASE
STATION

• Frequencies (or time slots or codes) are reused at

spatially-separated locations.
• Introduces interference ⇒ system capacity is
interference-limited.
• Mainly designed for circuit-switched communications
• Base stations perform centralized control functions.
(call setup, handoff, routing, etc.)
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

• Reuse Distance (D)

– distance between cells using the same frequency,
time slot, or code
– smaller reuse distance packs more users into a given
area, but also increases their co-channel interference

• Cell Radius

– decreasing the cell size increases system capacity,

but complicates the network functions of handoff
and routing
History of Mobile Radio &Cellular Communication Systems

Year Telecom Event

1880 Initial radio demo by Hertz
1897 First radio transmission by Marconi
1921 Police car radio at 2 MHz in Detroit
1933 FCC permitted 4 channels in 30-40 MHz
1956 Simplex radio telephony system-450 MHz
1964 FCC – 152 MHz duplex radio telephony
1974 FCC allots 40 MHz bandwidth in 800-900 MHz band
1979 First cellular system by NTT in Japan
First US cellular land mobile phone service in 800-900
1981
MHz band with 40 MHz bandwidth
1984 AMPS cellular system introduced by AT&T in US
1986 FCC added 5 MHz extended band; two operators per market

1988 TDMA digital cellular standard in North America (NA)

1992 GSM operable in Germany D2 cellular system

1993 CDMA chosen as digital cellular standard in NA

1994 American TDMA started in Seattle; PDC in Tokyo, Japan

1995 CDMA in Hong Kong

1996 Six PCS licensed bands at 120 MHz given in US

1997 Broadband CDMA chosen as 3G Technology for UMTS

1999 ITU decides nextG standards- W-CDMA, CDMA2000, TD-

SCDMA
2001 First commercial W-CDMA service in Japan

2002 FCC approves additional band for UWB

It is widely believed that the fixed landline telecom
network (Telephone, fax, etc) are the largest and most
complete integrated systems at present in the world.
The cellular radio has rapidly evolved and had already
crossed the size of the fixed land telephone network.
Let us consider the important differences between the
conventional landline telephone network and the cellular
radio telephone network.

Let us recall the basic features of the plain old land

telephone network (Public switched telephone network –
PSTN).
Plain old telephone:
DTMF Keypad for number dialing:
 Features of land phone:

i) Telephone Number is registered solely in the local exchange.

ii) Numbers are dialed from DTMF keypad as shown above.
iii) Central Battery supplies power to telephone handset.
iv) Subscriber loop is a 2 wire half duplex circuit.
v) Trunk circuits employ 4 wire circuits with Hybrid coil doing 2/4
wire conversion.
vi) ON/OFF HOOK state of cradle switch is an indication to the
exchange about call REQ/ Disconnect signaling information.
vii) subscriber can start dialing (entering telephone no.) only after
receiving the dial tone from the exchange.
viii) User must go to instrument to make a land phone call.
 Features of mobile/cellular phone:
i) There is no dial tone and cradle switch (i.e. on/off Hook)
Hook
ii) User types in/ calls from memory and presses ‘SEND’ button
to transmit telephone number of called party
iii) Power comes from the local Battery (LB), not from CB
iv) Local exchange is replaced by a base station (BS) and a
mobile switching centre (MSC)
v) Local 2 wire loop is replaced by 2 way HDX radio channel
vi) Cellular user talks on Reverse channel (MS to BS radio link)
and listens on forward channel (BS to MS radio link)
vii) signaling information is exchanged via separate set up or
control channels in each direction, user transparently
 Fundamental principles of cellular
communications:
Cellular technology had evolved from the mobile radio
telephone technology.
Mobile radio telephone (R/T):
It is basically a transceiver handset with a 2 way duplex link
connecting to a base station and switching centre.
Mobile unit carries its own telephone number in a SIM /
smart card, which allows roaming using same number.
BS and MS always keep in touch by handshaking protocols
via control channels, transparent to the user.
The following figure depicts the components of a R/T.
Cellular radio phone and its components:
There are many ways of providing wireless and mobile
communications
For ex:- cordless phones used at homes employ
wireless technology, with a low power transmitter and
hence has small coverage area(<100 m)
Such phones used in adjacent homes do not
experience any interference, even by operating at
same frequency exactly
This is a perfect example for frequency reuse

The same principle of frequency interference

avoidance is used in cellular systems also, even with
much more transmission powers
Radio Cell
Shape:
All users in a cell are served by central BS -gateway of cell !
Ideally all the cells are circular in shape for omnidirectional
coverage, with BS located at its centre as shown below.
Cell area and periphery are decided by minimum signal strength,
height of BS antenna, presence of hills, tall trees/buildings and
atmospheric conditions.
Thus actual shape of cell and coverage area is an irregular
zigzag circle, but modeled by a hexagonal building blocks.
Ex:- Bee hives are 3D hexagons
Multiple accessing is employed in cellular systems to allow
multiple cellular subscribers to access the same BS in a cell
They are FDMA, TDMA and CDMA
The limited bandwidth allocated to operator is divided into
number of radio channels, which are further grouped into
subsets, to assign one group of channels to a particular cell
This is the principle of FDMA employed in first generation
cellular systems.
Because of unique frequency sets allocated for each cell, it
is possible to use the same frequency set in a distant cell,
as long as the two transmissions do not interfere with each
other.
This is the principle of frequency reuse, a central theme of
cellular communications
Radio coverage in a single cell:
The fundamental radio cell and parameters that dictate
the radio coverage are shown below
Different cellular ranges for mobile radio communications are
indicated. The reverse path (MS to BS) limits the radio range,
due to limited TX. Power of mobile unit.
The no. of subscribers covered by a single cell depends on the
radius or area of the cell, as given in the table.
Cell area and number of subscribers covered

Cell radius Coverage area Number of

km km2 subscribers covered

1 3.14 100
3 28.3 900
10 314 10,000
25 1960 60,000
Typical cellular system layout and signal power distribution
are shown below. One can see the extensive signal
processing required to meet this.
MULTIPLE CEL LAYOUT:
The intracellular communication is duplex radio communication
between cell site (BS) and mobile unit (MS).
It needs a block allocation of frequencies for the control and
voice radio channels
Adjacent cells are not assigned the same frequency sets to avoid
the cochannel and adjacent channel interferences.
A handoff mechanism is required to automatically handover an
ongoing mobile call from one group to another frequency group
used in the next cell, as and when mobile unit is crossing cell
boundaries.
That means the cellular phone circuits must be frequency agile to
retune to a new frequency without call disconnects.
Basic cellular system architecture:
Cellular technology replaced a large coverage area mobile
radio system with many smaller cells, with a single BS
covering one particular cell only, as depicted in the
following figure.
The mobile and wireless devices used by subscribers are cell
phones, PDAs, palmtop/laptop PCs, web phones, etc.
All devices are referred to as Mobile Stations/Units (MS)
An MS can communicate only with its nearest BS of a cell in
which it is located ( i.e., belongs to).
Hence a BS (with a base transceiver) acts as a gateway
switch/router to the rest of the world, to any MS.
Every BS is controlled by one base station controller (BSC),
which in turn is connected to a mobile switching centre
(MSC) as shown in the following figure.
Several MSCs are interconnected to PSTN and ATM
backbone networks.
Cellular system architecture:
Home location register (HLR) and visitor location register
(VLR) are two database pointers that support mobility and
enable the use of same telephone number worldwide in
cellular communications.
HLR is located at the home MSC where MS is registered
VLR stores all the visiting mobiles in that particular area
Authentication centre (AUC) provides authentication for an
user attempting to make a cellular call.
This uses a 15 digit unique IMEI number programmed into
the MS at registration time and also stored in Equipment
identity register (EIR).
Network management and operations control are the
functions of the centers NMC and OMC.
BS and MS signaling and voice communication:
In any cellular system, four simplex radio channels are
needed to exchange synchronization and data between BS
and MS, as shown below.
The control channels are used to exchange control
messages like, authentication, subscriber identity, call
parameter negotiation, power control, etc.
Traffic (information) channels are used to transfer actual
data (voice/digital data)
Forward CH/ Downlink  BS to MS transmissions
Reverse CH/ Uplink  MS to BS transmissions
Control information shall be exchanged before the actual
data transfer can take place.
This necessitates the use of handshaking protocols for
cellular call setup, maintenance and disconnection.
Handshaking protocols in cellular call setup:
Simplified handshaking steps for a cellular call setup are
illustrated in following figure.

BS MS
1. Need to establish path

2. Frequency/time slot/code assigned

3. Control information acknowledgement

4. Start communication

fig. steps for a call set up from MS to BS

 steps for a call set up from MS to BS:

MS BS

1. Call for MS # pending

2. Ready to establish a path

3. Use of frequency/timeslot/code

4. Ready for communication

5. Start communication
Wireless LANs and PANs:
Mobile wireless networks find extensive use in different
facets of human life.
Already we are accustomed to line orientd to Local Area
Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN).
Ex:- Internet access, a value added service offered
by landline telephone network PSTN
Wireless LANs (WLAN) are being developed to provide
mobile access to data users.
Personal access Networks (PAN) cover very small areas
referred to as Pico cells using low powers in ISM band.
WLANs and PANs are becoming popular choice and
influence the wholesome home and office automation.
It is predicted that the percentage of nonvoice multimedia
data traffic is increasing heavily.
Also the digital voice technology is permitting the integration
of voice and nonvoice traffic into unified data stream.
Thus convergence of voice and nonvoice networks into a
single unified network supporting multimedia
communications is the order of the day.
Standards like IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth, HomeRF, HiperLAN
etc., are being developed and deployed worldwide.
Adhoc networks are being devised for commercial and
military applications.
MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS (MANNET):
Adhoc networks are basically peer to peer multihop mobile
networks for freely moving mobile users and hosts
interconnected by nodes (mobile transceivers).

Information packets are transmitted using a store and

forward protocol as shown in the fig.
Nodes are very small transceivers with antennas and can
be located inside airplanes, ships, trains, trucks, cars,
homes, offices, etc.

This adhoc network topology (multihop graph) may change

with time as the nodes move or adjust their transmission or
reception parameters.
Typical adhoc network is shown below.
Wireless Sensor Networks:
Sensor networks are the newest members of a special class
of wireless networks.
A large no. of tiny immobile sensors are planted on the
adhoc basis to sense and transmit some physical
characteristics of the environment.
An associated BS collects the information reported by the
sensors on a data centric basis.
Ex:- Battlefield surveillance of enemy territory/war front by
sensors dropped from a low flying aircraft.
Potential commercial uses include machinery prognosis,
biosensing and environment monitoring.
Typical wireless sensor network:
 WLAN and PAN characteristics and features

Type of Range of Primary function Deployed locations

network node
IEEE 30 m Standard for wireless Any peer-peer
802.11 nodes connection
Hiper- 30 m High speed indoor Airports,
LAN connectivity warehouses
Adhoc ≥ 500m mobiles, wireless, Battlefields,
Networks similar to wired disaster networks
connectivity
Sensor 2m Monitor inaccessible, Nuclear, chemical
Networks inhospitable terrain plants, oceans

Home RF 30 m Resource sharing, Homes

device connections
Bluetooth 10 m Avoid wire clutter, low offices, buildings
mobility provision indoors
 HANDOFF
Handoff is defined as a process used to allow a
call/data transfer to continue uninterrupted as
the mobile terminal moves between cells
Hard handoff vs. Soft handoff
Hard handoff- break before make
Soft handoff – Make before break

Vertical Handoff vs. Horizontal Handoff

Vertical Handoff- Between Different Networks
Horizontal Handoff- Between Same Networks

Decision to handoff is based on the received

signal strength or S/I ratio.
 CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT

• Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)

– each cell is assigned a fixed number
of channels
– channels used for both handoff and
new calls

• Reservation Channels with FCA

– each cell reserves some channels for
hand off calls

• Channel Borrowing
– a cell may borrow free channels from
neighboring cells

• Dynamic Channel Assignment

 METHODS TO IMPROVE
SPECTRUM UTILIZATION

• Interference Averaging (CDMA)

• Interference Reduction
(power adaptation, sectorization)

• Interference Cancellation
(smart antennas, multi user detection)

• Interference Avoidance
(dynamic resource allocation)
 PHYSICAL LAYER ISSUES

• Link Performance Measures

• Modulation Tradeoffs
• Flat Fading Countermeasures
• Delay Spread Countermeasures
 LINK PERFORMANCE MEASURES
PROBABILITY OF BIT ERROR
• The probability of bit error, Pb, in a radio environment
is a random variable.
– average Pb, Pb
– Pr [Pb > Pbtarget ] ∆ outage, Pout
=

• Typically only one of these measures is useful,

depending on the Doppler frequency and the bit rate.
 HOW DO WE OVERCOME THE
LIMITATIONS IMPOSED BY THE
RADIO CHANNEL?
• Flat Fading Countermeasures
– Fade Margin
– Diversity
– Coding and Interleaving
– Adaptive Techniques

• Delay Spread Countermeasures

– Equalization
– Multicarrier
– Spread Spectrum
– Antenna Solutions
 DIVERSITY

• Independent signal paths have a low probability

of experiencing deep fades simultaneously.
Received Signal Power

0
-20
(dBm)

-40
-60
-80
-100
0 4 8 12 16 d
The chance that two deep fades
occur simultaneously is rare.
• The basic concept is to send the same
information over independently fading radio

• Independent fading paths can be achieved by

separating the signal in time, frequency, space, polarization, etc.
 DIVERSITY COMBINING TECHNIQUES

• • •
α 1 α 2 α 3 α M

Combiner
Output

• Selection Combining: picks the branch with the highest SNR.

• Equal-Gain Combining: all branches are coherently combined

with equal weights.

• Maximal-Ratio Combining: all branches are coherently combined

with weights which depend on
the branch SNR.
THANK
YOU