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Land Use Districts Figure -Ground Building

Buildg Form & massing Landmarks
Circulation & Parking Path Linkage Street
Pedestrian Ways Edge
Open Space Nodes Place Square
Activity Support
Signage
Preservation & Conservation
 )m
°onsep Ơ°otaơ secara arsitektural (Cliff Moughtin, Ɲ92):
1. City is visualized as an open landscape into which building are
introduces as 3-D objects, pieces of sclupture sitting within a parkland.
2. City is where public spaces (Streets & Squares) appear to be carved
from an original block of material.

! !
By their nature, monumental buildings can only be built by wealthy entities. Usually this
means governments and religious orders, but in more modern times, corporations have
also acquired the resources to build monumental buildings. Size alone does not make a
monumental building. A WalMart is large enough to be a monumental building but lacks all
the other attributes. A monumental building must have features that go beyond purely
practical function. They require quality materials, fine workmanship, and good design.
They invariably exhibit generosity it their general arrangementsThe often carry towers,
broad staircases, and ranks of columns. The entrance alone is usually sufficient to
announce the importance of the building, and is invariably clear to a stranger approaching
the building. The roof line is often complex and often topped with ornamentation, turrets,
and some marking or symbol that identifies the building's patron.
 London,,!nt

This is one of the most intricately detailed buildings in the world and without doubt the most
important building in all Britain. Badly damaged during the last war, it was fully restored. More than
any other artifact, the clock tower, Big Ben, was the symbol of the British Empire. The roof line is a
fully-developed symphony of variation with harmony. Nobody would ever mistake this building for a
WalMart.
 nic,mog-,!cnd,iazttaan
arco

This is one of the leading monumental squares in Italy. In the background is Venice's cathedral, the Church of Saint Mark. In
the foreground is the Doge's Palace, which was both the residence of the sitting doge and the center of civil rule in Venice.
There is perhaps one defect in the palace - the absence of a really clear principal entrance. In most cases, the principal
entrance of a monumental building is located in the center and is so clearly defined as to be unmistakable. This is so, in the
case of the cathedral - the entrance is in the center of the principal façade and is framed by the largest arch.
There were originally to have been three monumental columns here, but one of them was lost over the side of a barge while
being unloaded, so only two were ever erected. Public hangings used to be conducted between the two columns, and
Venetians consider it bad luck to walk between them. Venice is rich in legend and lore, one of the things that makes it a
unique treasure.
 p nt,La,ost

To judge by the architecture, this is an old building, perhaps 500 years. In fact, however, it was built in
1910! This is a neo-gothic building in the classic northern European style. The stepped gables with
ornaments are a lavish form that is echoed in turrets. The windows are exceptionally graceful for such a
large building. Their number has been kept comparatively small by making them unusually large, and they
are graced by elliptical arches. Once again, the main entrance can be immediately identified, even from a
considerable distance. The stories are very high, which yields rooms with the high ceilings appropriate to
such an important building.
 ,isa,momo

We are accustomed to views of the Leaning Tower of Pisa, but how often does one see this view,
which takes in most of the site (another fine building at Pisa can be seen on the previous page). The
tower is a fanciful work, a curiosity, a building nearly unique. Its lean puts it into a class by itself. The
tower literally and figuratively overshadows the cathedral, which is itself a fabulous building.
This kind of integrated site, where all the buildings serve one end, is comparatively rare in old cities -
normally, churches are mixed in with other buildings, and, in many case, share common walls with
them. We have here truly monumental architecture, and of the highest quality.
London,
Saint ,aul-s Cat dral
This is the most important church in London.
For centuries, its dome loomed over London,
taller than all other buildings. Prince Charles
has made something of a career of criticizing
recent London buildings that have erased the
dominance of St. Paul's on the London
skyline. Office towers are now the most
visible landmarks in London, and not a one of
them can compete with this church on the
merits.
 È,!&
Christopher Alexander has identified a pattern, High Places that calls for the
building of high places from which people can obtain a view out over the city.
These should not be inhabited buildings; their primary purpose should only be
to provide this overlook. High places can take a number of different forms,
some of which are illustrated here
Mmstrdam,Sop iaplin$m
unt)

At the time of this photograph, the entire street was

open to pedestrians. Today, this is one of the busiest
parts of the city - the °alverstraat, the famous
pedestrian shopping street, begins just above the
prominent lamp post. The rest of the area has been
given over to cars, and pedestrians have no little
difficulty navigating through the area. There is enough
traffic here that it is not an attractive place to linger.

The trees on the left side of the photograph have

mostly been cut down, and the wharves now sport
permanently-moored barges upon which flower sellers
have established their bulb-and-wooden-tulip
businesses. These barges have been built in a rather
un-Dutch, slipshod fashion. Oddly, the curiously
unfinished clock faces are still the same today. The
tower includes a large, loud, high-pitched carillon that
plays more often than one might like. So far as I am
aware, the tower is never open to visitors. The entire
area is much less attractive than it was when the
photograph was taken. In short, none of the changes
are improvements. And this is Amsterdam, which has
capitalized for years on the civic beauty of which it is
justly proud. Blame a lot of it on the cars.
Õlornc,
lCampanildipiotto
This tower is upside down. Its elements
become larger, not smaller, as they go up. It
is tall enough to afford an excellent view of
most of the city.
 ,aris,
ifflowr

The Eiffel Tower is perhaps the world's single best-known structure. It is unique and instantly identified
with Paris. Here we see the Eiffel Tower in its glory days, soon after it was built. The tower was then
even more commanding than today - there was no other building in the city even remotely as tall. Only
some cathedral towers also broke above the skyline. The huge but seemingly diminutive Ferris wheel
did not long survive the exhibition for which both it and the Eiffel Tower were built. The view from the
top on a clear day covers then entire Paris metropolis. The structure serves only as a landmark and a
viewing platform; it has no significant utilitarian function. It is the quintessential High Place.
mistrict.
ininuilins
With the exception of the
first building, these
6unstr,,rincipalmarkt
buildings share a common
style and similar scale, yet
each building is unique and
has its own character.
Notice the arcade
underneath all the
buildings. This is a fine
example of an arcade, and
is subtly improved by the
use of round, not square
columns. A round column
allows more light to
penetrate into the arcade.
It is important to avoid an
excessive contrast in the
light level between the
outside and the arcaded
area. There needs to be
enough light that people
outside can see into the
arcade. The arcades need
to be kept fairly shallow
and the arches quite tall.
 Mmstrdam,iuwzijdsoorurgwal

This is a view of one of the broadest streets in central Amsterdam. The buildings range quite widely in
height, from three to six stories, yet they form quite a coherent whole. Notice that the skyline is broke only
by the mass of a cathedral that soars above. Notice also that many buildings have half basements, with the
ground floor actually elevated quite a bit above the street. This is a common and not terribly satisfactory
pattern in Amsterdam. The basements are often inhabited (at least today) and are cold, dark, and damp.
Their access is usually treacherous. The main floors are cut off from the street by their elevation.
 hisadn,hil lmstrass

These buildings all seem to have four principal floors, and some definitely have an additional floor in the roof.
These are all high-grade buildings, and the awnings are expensive to keep in good repair. With good design,
however, attractive buildings can be built on a much lower budget. The scale will be more modest and the
materials simpler, but the fine proportions can be maintained whatever the budget. Good design does not be
expensive. This is a wide street, and the buildings appear to face an urban park across the street. The
proportions seem quite comfortable, especially given the rather grand scale of the buildings. Notice the
rooftop ornaments. How much better they are than TV antennas!
 Mntwrp,6aisonsdsCorporationsdlaprand,lac

The central building is seven stories if you count the garret, yet the building with the eagle is apparently
only four stories but is nearly as tall as the tallest. Notice that there is a certain rhythm to the buildings -
the center building is the tallest and also widest, with the buildings becoming more modest on both sides.
Notice also that the five really good buildings all have very interesting and highly varied roof
ornamentation. The thin sliver of a building on the right looks completely out of place next to the other
buildings.
 /

ƠSquareơ = Non linear open space

= Plaza (Piazza) = Active open space

&  - Market square

- Formal/symbolic square

  - Enclosed square ..usually small

- Square dominated by individual structure
- Linked square
6ar*0uar
Louvain,Liu6arc

This is a typical central market. From the sheer size, it is evident, however, that this market was still very
important at the time this photograph was made. Markets tend to be untidy places. In well-run cities, the
market square is thoroughly cleaned at the end of the day.
 6issn,6arkt

Oddly, the back of the church presents itself to the market square. The church tower is unusually blocky and
unattractive. It needs more openings or ornamentation. Notice the sinister eyebrow windows in the roof of
the building on the right, which is a generally poor building. The doubled windows don't work well, and there
is no framing of the windows. Although this is probably not a new building, it already has elements of the
feckless Modern. One might look elsewhere for a model of how to arrange a good market square.
 Copn agn,pammlstrand

This somewhat later photograph, probably from the 1920s or 1930s. Notice that the street has been kept
clear, which probably indicates that a huge percentage of the available space has been given over to
automobiles, even though only one seems to be visible.The buildings are spared but perfectly articulated.
This is proof, if any were ever needed, that a multitude of styles can work well, but that many of them work
best when they are used to the exclusion of other styles in the immediate vicinity. This scene has an
integrity and coherence that is rarely achieved.
 Sina,,iazzadlCampo

This huge square is the central public space in Siena, a wonderful city that would be even better if they
would move the last few cars out of it. Its character is quite similar to what is visible. This square is a huge
bowl that drains down along the white rays to an enormous storm drain at the focus of the rays. While this
is a very large space, it is full of people on a warm afternoon. The extraordinary Gaia fountain can be seen
on the left in the middle distance.
orma!1s'mo!i&0ar

Lison,,raçamom,dro
 murin,,iazzaCastllo

This is an extremely formal square. It appears that everything has been drawn at right angles and that a
rigid symmetry has been maintained. There is a perfect balance that approaches being static. The people
using the square are the one element that is not in perfect symmetry, and they, of course, make the
place lively. Notice that we have a very long vista down the street right in the center, but that the space
is eventually enclosed by a distant building that terminates the street. We have complete enclosure,
although the scale is so large that the square has a very airy feel. One curiosity - what is the purpose of
the exceptional wrought iron fence? It does not appear that there are any gates, so it could not be to
keep people out.
 Êom,,iazzaSan,itro

This is the square in front of what is known to English speakers as St. Peter's, perhaps the most important
sectarian public space in the world. It is much larger than this view shows, and it is built with a rigid,
formal symmetry. When the Pope speaks, it is often entirely filled with people. Everything here shouts
"wealth and power."
 ClrmontÕrrand,,lacd2aud

This square is nearly in the character of an urban park and not a square. There are dense plantings of
trees, and the scale of the square is so large that it no longer functions as a coherent whole. Notice that
the enclosure is complete, at least in this view. Notice also how the view is cut up by all of the wires
that were strung for the trams.

n&lod0ua

London,puild all

This square breaks an important rule for public

squares - it is a dead end. That can be
tolerated here, since this is really a courtyard
that belongs to the Guildhall. In other respects,
it fits nicely into the category of a small square
- its scale and proportions are good, and it has
attracted people, who have doubtless attracted
the pigeons.

Think how much better these buildings would

look if the black grunge were cleaned off them
and the underlying light-colored stone allowed
to gleam again. Did you notice immediately
that the building in the center is far from
exhibiting mirror symmetry? It is well balanced,
which is a perfectly reasonable, even
preferable, substitute for mirror symmetry.
 wancy,,lacdaudmont

This is nearly perfect square. The buildings are of an excellent scale, and the treatment of the storefronts is
very fine. The arch and wall that enclose the space are of high standard. Notice the sculpture on the high
plinth. There is almost nothing here that we might want to add, unless it would be a fountain. Cars are today
allowed to use part of this square, with the result that large, ugly road signs have been added, and a row of
bollards with chain were needed to keep the cars from using the space as a parking lot.
pnoa,
C isadiSan,itro

This is a classic small Italian square. It

is full of life and no larger than it
needs to be. This is evidently a highly
successful social space. Notice that
the surrounding buildings are taller
than the square is wide, and they may
even be taller than the square is long.
(The elevated position of the
photographer suggests that the
square is no deeper than what we
see, as he was probably standing in a
window.)
Notice how narrow the street is
leading into the square. This is
probably one of the densest parts of
Genoa, a city that is sandwiched
between steep hills and the Ligurian
Sea. Space was at a premium in this
city, but it doesn't suffer from the
necessary economical use of buildable
land.
mia0ar
,aris,L- pra

What a fabulous square, and how impressive! Notice that even the buildings in the background maintain the
appearance of symmetry. In some aspects of city design, not only do appearances count, they're all that
count.
 Muray,La,lacdla6airi

This is another square that directs the eye towards a single building. Notice that arms of the square extend
into the distance, on both sides of the central building. The upper half part of this building is fine with the
double dome & the dormers. But the lower half did not turn out so well, the doors needed arches instead of
straight lintels. Itƞs hard to know it is one or two stories. Either someone was trying to make an overly grand
ground floor, with ceilings close to 10 meters high, or they were trying to cram two stories in the same
space. Either way, it was a failure. Notice the nicely framed view of the tower in the distance, on the right.
 6ilan,,iazzamuomo

The Duomo is one of the largest churches in the world and fronts on a square to match. The entrance
portal of the marvelous Galleria Victor Emmanuel can be see on the left.
 Ãprs,prand,lac

Notice that the square is not rectilinear - it tapers down going away from us, to the point that a single
building fills the far end of the square, perhaps the city hall. Ypres was the site of one of the fiercest and
most protracted battles of World War I. I believe that nearly a million men died in the battle that carries
the name of this ill-fated town. It is unlikely that any of the buildings in this scene survived more than
another 20 years. Belgium has never really recovered from the two world wars.
Lin*dqua
L6ans,,lacdlaÊpuliqu

The cars park in a row in the middle of the square. This does not help the square any, the definition of
the street remains intact as a result. Notice how clean the line of the curb appears, and contrast this
with the appearance of streets today, with their endless rows of parked cars.
 • ric , a n ofplatz

While the Banhofstrasse (which makes off to the left, where the trams are) is a beautiful street, the
Bahnhofplatz works less well. Perhaps too much has been asked of it. While it was doubtless
necessary to bring the trams to the main train station (on the right), this has come at a cost. This
area is really no longer a square - it's primarily a circulation area. The car parking in front of the
station does nothing to help, either. Notice how the enclosure of this area drains away. There is a
large opening in the center of the photograph. The situation is made worse by the scale - the square
is large, and the buildings are made to look small as a result. This is one place where somewhat taller
buildings probably would have helped, perhaps up to seven or eight stories.
 Õlornc, ia Calzaioli
Rob °rier analyzed the
possible shapes of
squares and the manner
in which streets were
brought into them. One
of the arrangements is
known as a turbine, one
part of which is shown
here. Streets come in at
the corners and "inject"
foot traffic into a
clockwise flow around
the square. This is
thought to make the
square more lively. This
square has that
arrangement, at least
for the one street that is
visible.

It is evident from the amount of wheeled traffic on the street that this square serves as an important
circulation space. Notice, however, that no curbs have been installed. This can play out in either of two
ways - pedestrians feel that the whole space is theirs, and vehicles have to be careful, or vice versa.
 Úrino,6ainSquar

The street on the left is tapers down as it leaves the square. Since tapers are generally an interesting
addition to a street, it is clearly that it should become wider approaching a square. The square is
gradually revealed, and the activity of the square bleeds off into the street, which has room to
accommodate the higher level of activity. Such an arrangement also contributes to the development of
positive open space, as it reduces the concavity that is inevitably created by a street. In a few squares,
the problem is resolved by placing arches over all the entrances to the square.
 Spa,L,ou on

This is a much happier square. The scale is quite small, the buildings are excellent and of highly agreeable
proportions. One might wish for the large "change" sign to go away. The view down the street in the
center is enticing - doesn't it make you want to walk down it? The rounded building with the cupola
houses one of the sources of spring water for which the town is famous. Notice the odd gallery on the left-
hand side of the building on the right. This completes the line of the buildings on that street.
0arasntrs&ton
Èoorn, Kaasmarkt prot ost

This comparatively small square is certainly an intersection of some importance, to judge by the
spores that traffic has left. At the same time, there are no curbs, and it seems likely that the whole
space is at least at times used as social space.
 C artrs, Êus Dlacroi t wol Ballay

This space is at a lovely scale, and appears to be almost entirely reserved for the use of pedestrians.
When people will stand and talk in the middle of the street, you have probably reached a functionally
carfree state, even if a few cars do still traverse the area. Notice how the right-hand spire is perfectly
framed in the street. Coincidence or art?
 pnoa, ,iazza Corvtto

This is a really large space, which it needs to be if it is to perform its function as a circulation space for
trams. There is, however, still a lot of space that is reserved for pedestrians, and very little of this space is
used for the circulation of horse-drawn carriages and wagons. Still, this does not seem to be one of those
squares where people stop and linger. The trams circulate in both directions at part of the square. The
usual way to arrange this is for a single track to circulate around the square, with traffic in a single
direction. There is always a danger when trams running in opposite directions pass one another - with this
arrangement, pedestrians will be struck with some regularity, for certain.
 Barclona,CalldCorcga

We can see the circulation patterns from the black stains on the pavement, and it is evident that most of
this square is used for the movement of cars. Pedestrians have been awarded a few islands on which to
cower while hoping for a chance to dart through the traffic. This is a pre-war version of a freeway
interchange. If this space were entirely reserved for pedestrians, it would almost certainly be much too
large. In fact, a successful pedestrianization of this space would probably include the construction of
several buildings to fill in the space enough that the remaining space became better enclosed and of a
more appropriate size.
 


ƠStreetơ = Linear open space
= Path, way, boulevard, mall, promenade
ƽ ƠRoadơ = emphasized on the movement of vehicles

&  - Main element of the city, etalase kota

- Means of access,
- Link between building and places
- Arena for social expression

 Determined by ratio between street wide & building

height, length & configuration
 o!vard
Lison,MvnidadaLirdad

This is a classic boulevard. It runs straight as a rule to the horizon. It has three roadways, two marginal (for
local traffic) and one central for fast traffic. Long rows of trees march its full length. There is one deviation
from the standard design, and that is the rather narrow sidewalks fronting the buildings, which are so often
used as sites for cafés. The islands between the three roadways are well equipped with paved sidewalks. The
placing of a large monument at a circular intersection is typical of boulevard construction, as is the varied
construction fronting the boulevard.
 inna,Karntnrring

This is a nearly perfect boulevard. It has the trees, the multiple roadways, and the proportions of a true
boulevard. The use of straight segments gives the enclosure that is missing from very long straight
streets. Each of the ring segments is closed at both ends by the next segment angling off. Notice that
the blocks are quite short, and that just a few buildings form the face of an entire block. Notice also
that the buildings are in harmony with each other. The use of awnings is a lovely and practical touch
that adds life to the street as they are furled and unfurled with the changing light and weather.
 Barclona,SalóndSan2uan

It is fairly standard, although the archway through which the roadway passes is a somewhat unusual
constriction. It appears that the land once sloped away to the left. While most of the area was filled to
make it level, there is a drop-off at the left-hand side, which breaks the integration of the buildings on
that side with the street. The extremely broad sidewalk and trees help to mute this effect, but it cannot
entirely be disguised.
Widr
,aris,Mvnudl- pra

This is a neighborhood that demonstrates a harmony of various designs that stem from a common style.
Lamp posts placed in the middle of the street is in most respects the best place for them. The shady circles
must have been lovely places to rest on a hot summer's day. The presence of the imposing opera house at
the end of the street gives a very different feel to this street.
 Lill,LaÊuÕaid r

This is a very fine wide street indeed. The sidewalks are of generous proportion, to accommodate what
is undoubtedly a high volume of foot traffic. Notice that the awnings have only been deployed on one
side of the street. With the sun coming from the other side of the street, the picture would be reversed.
Notice how little vehicular traffic is to be seen - a few horse-drawn wagons and hackneys, a tram in the
distance, a bicycle in the foreground. There are, however, a very large number of people on foot.
 Brlin,Õridric strass

The proportions of this street are just enough different from the Paris streets that it has a different feel to
it. The street is somewhat narrower, while the buildings are about the same height. There are two basic
proportions in streets - under-square and over-square. The under-square street is wider than the
adjacent buildings are tall. The over-square street is the other way, of course.
arro"3orcialStrt

Saint6alo,Êu,orcon

Although narrow, this street is able to support a

large volume of foot traffic, in the absence, of
course, of cars.

Notice that the building on the right has arches

above the windows. This looks right to the eye
because it is also right structurally - the arch is a
strong element of construction that is well suited
to masonry because there are no tensile loads
created - everything is in compression.
I think we know this almost instinctively and are
subtly troubled by straight lintels, unless they are
of wood, which we know from experience to bear
bending loads well. Too much of modern building
construction is done because it is possible, not
because it is a good idea. Many of the structures
built by Dutch architects in the 1920s and 30s
include brick used in tension, and it soon requires
major and costly repairs. Arrogance is a
dangerous quality in an architect, and one that is
all too common. Le Corbusier must have been
about the most arrogant man who ever lived.
 Bausolil,Boulvarddlamour

This is a city on a hillside. The foreground slopes gently enough, but the street gives way to stairs in the
middle distance. This is evidently an important commercial area. This street is on the border between
narrow and wide. Its form and function are very similar. As we see in carfree streets everywhere,
pedestrians will make use of the full width of the street when they can.
 BoulognSur6r,LaÊum irs

Here a major commercial street that is only about 9 meters wide. It is filled with pedestrians but still
manages to pass the odd horse-cart and an occasional tram. The buildings are of a very fine character, and
apparently built in a hodgepodge of styles over a period of a century or two. Nonetheless, these disparate
buildings get along fine with one another, and this was a very attractive street. Note the early application of
plate glass in the right foreground, it does work well for shop windows.
Imagine this street with metal boxes above all the shop windows (to contain the rolled-up shutters) and
what this street would look like with all the ground-floor windows covered by crude galvanized steel
shutters. It would destroy the street almost as effectively as warfare. The first rule of architecture should be
to protect people from harm by the building.
Bayonn,LaÊud-
spagn

This is another fairly old street in all

probability. It doesn't seem to run straight for
more than a short distance as it makes a
gentle curve to the left. We have here another
commercial street, as evidenced by the
awnings. It appears to begin at a small square
in the foreground which appears to host a
minor distribution center, to judge by the carts
on the left.
The stone paving appears worn but has not
become uneven. The life span of paving is
directly related to the passage of heavy loads,
which is why streets in modern cities tend to
deteriorate so rapidly (in northern cities,
freeze-thaw cycles are another cause).
arro"
idntialtrt

Õuntrraia,
Calld,ampinot
This street has a prosperous feel to it
despite some deterioration. Notice that
the line between the buildings and the
street is only broken in a few places in
this street, whereas the previous street
is chopped up by a variety of
impediments. The graceful upward
curve near the end of the street is an
additional attractive feature of this
street, as is the building that closes off
the end of the street
Lisiu,Êudla,ai
This is a very narrow street, less than three meters
wide, with corbelled buildings. It is always
interesting to observe when genteel decay begins to
look like deterioration.
I think this street stands right on the edge. It
remains attractive but if circumstances do not soon
improve and building owners make some repairs, it
will become an area in steep decline. Oddly, Venice
seems to be able to tolerate this sort of decay better
than anywhere I know.
Notice the capacious roof rising steeply and far
above the building. There is certainly at least one
usable story within, and possibly two.
hrnigrod,Klisstgass
This is a lovely example of a narrow street in a mixed-
use area that almost certainly includes many
residences. The street appears to be a peaceful one
despite the evident presence of several small
businesses.
Some points make this an unusually attractive street.
First, its width is not constant - it tapers down in the
middle distance. Second, it also curves gently. Third,
the view is closed by the façade of a very attractive
building. Finally, the signs placed by business do not
intrude unreasonably into the scene. When people
move on foot, small signs are entirely sufficient to
their needs; it is only the advent of the automobile
that has given us gigantic signs, often with irritating
internal illumination, to attract motorist whizzing by.
There is one minus: the flight of steps that obtrudes
into the sidewalk. The building beyond has its lowest
floor just one step above the street and the building is
tightly connected to the street, with its windows at the
eye level of passersby. By contrast, the building in the
foreground has its first floor about a meter above the
street, which necessitates the encumbering stairs and
isolates the ground floor from the street. Notice how
each story is corbelled out over the story below. In
rainy places like Germany, this helps keep water off
the faces of the buildings and their windows, which
considerably reduces water damage.
Mmsrfoort,D6uur uizn
This is a nearly perfect quiet street. The
width of the street is highly agreeable, given
the less urban character of this area
(Amersfoort is a small provincial city in the
Dutch hinterlands).

What makes this street so attractive? It has

one vital characteristic - it curves gently and
continuously in one direction, affording the
pedestrian a constantly changing view and a
good look at each of the façades on the left
side of the street. Notice that the buildings on
the right are smaller and of a simpler
character than those on the left. The curve of
the street makes the better buildings more
visible.

I will relent on the matter of street trees here

- the three trees that can be seen are well
behaved, nicely situated, and entirely in
keeping with the character of the street.
Notice that, despite the presence of a number
of single-story buildings, this is still clearly an
urban area. The fact that all buildings abut
their neighbors has much to do the
maintenance of an urban character.
Barclona,CallMrcos
This is the ultimate narrow street. It is not even two
meters wide and creates a very intimate space. The
curve of the street makes it endlessly interesting. It is
clearly a rich neighborhood - not every rich person
wants to secrete himself as far from his neighbors as
possible.

The buildings, while simple, are of extremely high

quality. The elements are nicely proportioned, the
treatment of the windows is very fine, and the overhead
arches serve to close in the space even more while still
admitting plenty of light.

The iron grills indicate a climate that is often very hot -

the windows can safely be left open all night, even on
the ground floor.
Mlgirs,Casa
This street is only about two meters wide, that are
common in African souks and medinas. Like this
street in Algiers, many of the streets in Morocco's
Fes-al-Bali (believed to be the largest contiguous
carfree population in the world) are comparatively
steep and require steps. In Marrakech, built on
quite flat land, they are not needed, and the streets
are by comparison less interesting.

The delivery of freight in these streets is very

difficult. The only real alternative is the use of
donkeys, which can negotiate the steps without
special difficulty. Emergency access is simply
impossible, and I can't imagine what is done in the
case of a fire. Medical evacuations would only be
possible by stretcher. I doubt, therefore, that we
will ever see construction of streets like this one
again.
Notice that the buildings are corbelled out over the
street and even come quite close to touching one
another. In hot climates where the noonday sun is
to be avoided at all costs, corbelled buildings
provide effective shading of the streets below and
allow them attain the necessary width.
trai ttrt
|nk uizn,wiuwhstrstraat

In this part of town, the streets are crooked and the resultant areas are very interesting and engaging.
The the name of this street means "new," so we can assume that this is an extension of Westerstraat,
probably built some time in the 19th Century. Today, they are still in excellent condition. Notice the two
lines of trees marching off into the distance, each gradually merging into a solid mass in the distance
 ,aris,ÊuÊoc c ouart

In many ways, this is a fine street. The buildings are good and harmonize well with one another. The
street is fairly wide, but the buildings are tall enough that it is over-square, so it has a good sense of
enclosure, except that it bleeds away down the street. The situation is somewhat relieved by the slope
of the street, which appears to led to a crest at quite some distance. (A tram is crossing the street in the
middle distance, thus obscuring the horizon.) While there is nothing really wrong with this street, I find it
faintly depressing.
 Cautrts,BoulvardLatapiÕlurin

This is a short straight street, and the fact that it ends against a mass of trees helps to maintain the
enclosure, and the street (or at least this view of it) is short enough that the street does not suffer from
being straight, and in fact gains a bit of dignity from its regularity. These are expensive buildings, with
protruding stone balconies and lots of wrought iron. The effect is excellent. Notice that the buildings are
of rather light color, which generally makes a street more attractive
3rvtrt
Èannovr,6arktstrass

This street could have been laid out with sharp corners, instead of the gentle sweep that we see. The result
is a complex intersection, with side streets coming in from two or more directions, that almost forms a
square. It is not a good arrangement for vehicular traffic, but works fine for pedestrians and bicyclists.
Can,6aisonds/uatrans
This is a lovely curved street. It is fairly
narrow, and the curvature appears to be
constant, which makes the scene a tad
static. It is usual with curved streets to
make the buildings straight, with each
building at a slight angle to its neighbors.
This results in interior spaces that are not
perfect rectangles.
Modern practice has it that this is more
expensive, but the difference cannot be
large. Surely the improvement in the
street is worth a small increase in the cost
of construction.
Notice here the lovely sight of the steeple
rising above the buildings. Was this
happenstance, or was it by design?
Bayu,LaÊudla6aitris

The buildings on the left are much more

prominent than those on the right. This
always arises when a street is curved, and
is one of the most compelling reasons to
shape streets with curves. The eye tracks
on the exposed buildings from some
distance and tends to linger on them as
the perspective changes. The buildings on
the right see comparatively little exposure,
and, in this case, are lower buildings.
Notice that one of the doors of the
cathedral faces straight down the street.
Notice also that the bricked-up window in
the foreground drains life out of the street
Kitzingn,Õaitrstrass
Cities have to end somewhere. It is no longer
likely that anyone will build another city like
Siena, which terminates abruptly at the city
walls - outside the walls begins the
countryside (at least outside the greatest
length of the walls). We will probably have to
make do without walls. In the Netherlands,
even new additions to cities tend to end
somewhat like the scene here - the
development stops and the cow pastures
begin. The critical difference between current
Dutch practice and the scene here is that
virtually all new Dutch streets are perfectly
straight. Here, the opening into the
countryside emerges gradually as we round
the curve in the street. The end of the street is
punctuated with a beautiful tower.
This is as good as we're ever likely to do
again, except maybe for the addition of a gate
of some kind at the end of the street.. The
street itself is good - it's a comfortable width,
the buildings are of a nice height, and the
overhanging sign is a fine touch.
 (
Strictly speaking, a taper implies a wedge shape, and most of the cases we will be
seeing in this chapter are actually stepped, not tapered. The difference is in fact of
some significance, and one sees taper in most medieval streets. Steps create
discontinuities in the building frontage, whereas tapers do not. The breaks can be
dead space or can be adopted for a variety of purposes, most of which improve the
street and add points of interest. However, the important point is that streets are
much more interesting when they are not of constant width.
Tapers and steps can be used to add small public spaces where a square would be
excessive (we can't have functioning squares at every intersection unless the
population density is at Hong °ong levels or where the block length is very (too) long).
Note that it is possible to maintain a grid pattern even while applying tapers and
steps. While there is no real need to maintain a grid pattern absent automobile traffic,
quite a few people seem to prefer it, and it seems reasonable to provide at least some
neighborhoods built to a grid. The odd thing about grids is that they have had, if you
will, a checkered past. The Romans built their new cities on grid plans, and the grid
came back into fashion several hundred years ago. In between, few cities were laid
out on the basis of a grid. Since the war, many North American neighborhoods have
seen the grid again abandoned in favor of cul-de-sac street patterns (which must be
the most confusing possible arrangement, and the least forgiving of any error in
navigation).
a(rStrt
piraltar, C urc Strt

This street appears to neck down in two steps. In fact, one of the steps is actually a jog, as it is matched
by a step on the opposite side of the street that serves to maintain the street's width. This effect is highly
satisfactory and comes close to fully enclosing the space. The building at an angle in the foreground is the
Catholic cathedral. The street actually curves at this point, which is why the cathedral is not aligned with
the rest of the street.
 itr, La Êu ,otri

The stepped street opens up to provide extra space for what is probably fairly heavy traffic at some times.
This also allows a better appreciation of fine buildings that have gradually accumulated in this area (the
variation in style tells us that this street took hundreds of years to reach its current state). In the middle
distance, the street necks down to a normal, narrow street that was doubtless adequate to the demands
placed upon it until modern times.
 &
Some cities have a long tradition of arcaded streets. Most of these are in areas
where weather extremes make protection from the elements highly desirable.
Arcades can provide highly effective protection from sun, rain, and snow. They
also provide some protection from wind. Arcades can be continuous except for
breaks at street crossings. Narrow streets obviously expose pedestrians to the
elements for shorter periods. If the streets are narrow enough, it is even possible
to carry the arcades across the intersection, as has sometimes been done.
The regularity of the arcade form is attractive, and some variation is introduced
from one building to the next. It appears that comparatively long building
frontages are common in cities with arcades, as the joining of one arcaded
building to the next involves a bit of complication. with waterproofing of the
joint. It is important to keep streets open for pedestrians even when arcades are
provided - in nice weather, pedestrians should be able to leave the protection of
the arcades and walk in the sunny street.
In cold climates it might be possible to apply arcades extensively to provide
pedestrians with a concourse that was not so bitter cold. During the cold months,
transparent covers could be applied to the arcade openings, to keep out the wind
and allow a moderate buildup of warmer air. While the temperature increase
would be limited to a few degrees, the wind could be stopped almost entirely,
which makes a large difference in really cold conditions.
 C amry, La Êu ds ,ortiqus

This is a classic arcaded street. Notice that while the buildings are very similar, they have subtle and
important differences that hold the eye. Notice also that the street has been kept quite narrow. The
effective width of the street is increased by the width of the arcades. Notice, on the left, the ugly bracket
for telephone wires and the wires running up the face of the building.
Brin,Stadlgass
These arcades are unusual in their
proportions. Normally, the openings are
much higher than this, and usually also
quite a bit narrower. These proportions
seem somewhat less desirable than the
more usual slender opening.
When designing an arcade, one issue is
always the height of the arcade. Will the
arcade reach only the height of the first
floor, or will it rise to the second? Is the
height of the first floor to be made great,
in order to keep the proportions of the
arcade more pleasant? The number of
stories above the arcade also
considerably affects its appearance. The
way these questions are answered has
large effect on the overall appearance of
the completed arcade.
Notice the interesting bay windows. While
this is a fairly common form, the bays
protrude somewhat farther than usual.
This town is located in a small German-
speaking area of the South Tyrol that is
part of Italy.
 pnoa, Èotl d la ill

Notice the variation in the dimensions of the arches. The large four-arch building has two different arch
widths, although all four are the same height. Other buildings have only two arches, usually the same, but
one building has one large arch and one small. It appears that there are no buildings on the other side of the
street, except for the one casting the foreground shadow.
ataan
ntranc

wancy,,ortdlaCraff

Everything about the design of this building

speaks of its defensive nature. Anyone
attempting to batter down the gates would have
been subjected to a murderous attack from the
fortifications immediately above it.
This gate almost epitomizes the concept of
"castle" that many Westerners carry in their
minds.

The same architecture was used by Disney in its

"magic kingdom" and is in fact its logo. [Did you
know that one of the reasons that these parks
feel fake is that, as a cost-cutting measure, they
were built at 7/8th scale? This may not seem
like much of a reduction, but it reduces the
volume of the structure by one-third, a large
cost savings indeed.]
Anyone approaching this gate would have no
doubt that, if admitted, he would find a different
world on the other side of the gate.
 6adrid,,urtadMlcata

This grand gate is entirely ceremonial. In fact, it stands at the center of a traffic circle, and only
pedestrians who choose to do so can pass beneath its portals. There are no defensive aspects to its
design. Instead, it has been lavishly decorated with sculpture. The provision of five portals is a bit over
the top. Oddly, the two outer portals are not arched but headed by massive lintels. This may have
been done for the sole purpose of providing a large flat surface upon which to place the large
decorative stonework that can be seen.
Lago6aggior,
soladi,scatori

This simple stone archway may have

been constructed largely for practical
reasons - the buildings on either side of
it may have threatened collapse, and the
arch might have been built to provide
mutual support. Certainly, this is a
common reason for the construction of
such an arch.
Whatever the initial purpose of the arch
may have been, it serves as an entryway
to the town, separating its waterfront
from the town itself. Observe that the
street (which, in this case, is actually a
flight of stairs) narrows just beyond the
arch, and that the street is in fact very
narrow, probably two meters at most.
Õuntrraia,,urta,rincipal

The name of this gate implies that it was the

most important entrance to the city though it is
not much larger than is required to permit a
wagonload of hay to pass into the city. The
smaller the gate, the stronger, and the easier it
is to defend. Again we see the city's shield, this
time with a text engraved beneath. The street
was laid out with four curves visible from this
vantage point, all of them quite subtle.
These gentle curves close off the view, thereby
creating a comfortable sense of enclosure. In
addition, the curves expose the facades of
buildings to the approaching pedestrian, and the
buildings so exposed are usually of more than
ordinary importance.
Notice also that the sidewalk is not carried
through the gate. This serves to induce
congestion at the gate itself, because the
effective width of the street is thereby
considerably reduced. In times when those
entering or leaving the city would have been
subject to at least casual inspection by those
guarding the gate, this slowing down would
have made it easier to keep tabs on who was
coming and going. The collection of taxes on
goods entering the city would have been easier
by virtue of the enforced slow-down.
M
MSMM

Sina,iaS.Mcata
Siena is unusual in several respects.
Notable are its relatively narrow, curving
streets. The major streets appear to
follow the ridge lines, with minor streets
falling away on either side.

Again, we have a gate framing a view,

this time of the principal campanile in
Siena. The foreground street curves
gently back and forth but does not
disappear around a corner for some
distance. In fact, just as it disappears, it
leads the eye to another gate at the foot
of the hill. To pick a nit, the dormer roof
that intersects the line of the campanile
should be trimmed back until it no
longer cuts the campanile from this
vantage point.
pnoa,,ortadlacca

This tall, stately gate frames an

intimate view up the street, which
appears to be just five or six meters
wide. The buildings are four or five
stories tall, but some of the floors
are high, leading to building that
are much taller than the street is
wide.
Notice that the street curves away,
but not immediately. The
relationships between the length of
straight street, the width of the
street, and the degree of curvature
all combine to show us the facades
of several buildings, albeit at quite
an acute angle. Some people find
these proportions claustrophobic,
but they are common in the older
parts of many cities. My own feeling
is that this is about the limit of the
desirable ratio between street width
and building height.
,rugia,LaiaMppia

This gate frames a lovely vista from a hilltop

looking out over another hill. The view would
still be unusually attractive even without the
gate, but the addition of the gate turns this
view into a work of art.

Note that from a distance, the houses appear

almost as a jumble, scattered apparently at
random across the hillside. Almost without a
doubt, however, the arrangement of the
streets, and the houses that front on them, is
anything but random. Rather, the paths of the
streets is almost certainly governed by minor
features in the topography.

It seems entirely appropriate that someone

chose this particular view to frame with a gate
 pm
3) Sp
4Sm
6ontSaint6ic l,
lamourduput

the scale of this scene is extremely

intimate. The buildings are small. The
gate is only large enough to pass a
wagonload of hay. The sidewalks are no
wider than required to permit someone to
pass by people sitting on the benches.
Few of the dimensions of the area could
be reduced without serious harm to its
usability.
Notice that the gate is not strictly
necessary to close the view at street
level. The jog in the street that occurs
just on the far side of the gate is
sufficient to close the street-level view.
Without the gate, however, the area
would bleed off into the distance and lose
some of its intimate quality.
Brn,•itglocknturm

This exceptionally lovely gate-cum-

clocktower completes the enclosure of
this space.
The investment of what even today
would be a large sum in the
construction of the clock announces to
the world that this is an important
space, although this is but one of the
major squares in medieval Bern.
The advent of fuel-cell power may
soon permit us to build trams that
generate their electricity on board,
thereby once again allowing us to
dispense with wires. What an
improvement that would bring, and
what a cost savings!
It's worth noting that Washington,
D.C., did not permit tram operators to
string wires; the power for trams in
Washington was supplied by an
underground third-rail. This eliminated
the overhead clutter, although at the
cost of a serious hazard for bicyclists.
The beauty of the capital was thought
important enough to warrant the
expense of underground power.
 6unic ,wu ausrstrass

This gate was built in the 14th Century, which indicates that it was originally part of the city's
defensive works. In the 19th Century, the center arch was widened after being damaged in by an
explosion. Today, the gate closes off this important street while still permitting a glimpse of what
lies beyond. This street is still carfree today, and the trams have been replace by an underground
metro. Notice also that the flagpoles cry out for flags, and that on carfree streets, pedestrians make
use of the full width of the street.
M

S
,MÊM
W mSÊ3S
Êapallo,MrcodllaSalin

This narrow gate divides a minor street from what

appears to be a square on the far side. This gate
must have been constructed in a time of relative
wealth, as it could never have been inexpensive to
construct. Notice that the gate is not aligned
precisely with the street. It undoubtedly aligns
instead with the square onto which it faces. The
street behind is not precisely at right angles to the
side of the square, which creates the
misalignment.

Notice the vagrant power lines visible in the top

right corner, which detract from the purity of the
scene. There is a slightly artless gutter and
downspout on the opposite side, which is less
objectionable.
 6unic ,Karlstor

This is doubtless another ceremonial gate in a defensive style characterized by the strongly articulated
crenellations. This is another triple-arch gate, with the lower side gates for pedestrians and the central
arch for all vehicular traffic, which, by the time of this photograph, includes electric trams, one of which
can be seen in the distance.
The character of the street on the far side of the gate is much the same as on the near side, suggesting
that this gate might be incorrectly situated, as it does not appear to divide one distinct neighborhood
from another..