Lecture : Histology of

Cartilage and Bone

 MATRIX contains:

Collagenous Fibers
 for increase in the tensile
strength
Elastic Fibers
different regions of
for elasticity
 MESENCHYME surrounding
MESENCHYME surrounding the
the enlarging
enlarging mass
mass of
of cartilage
cartilage is
is
compressedand
compressed andforms
formsaafibrous
fibrousenvelope
envelopethe
thePERICHONDRIUM.
PERICHONDRIUM.
TWO PROCESSES BY WHICH CARTILAGE
GROWS:
1. Interstitial or ENDOGENOUS
1. Expansion of cartilage from within
2. Results from mitotic division of pre existing
chondrocytes
2. Appositional or EXOGENOUS
1. addition of new layers of cartilage to one surface
2. results from differentiation within the inner layer of
PERICHONDRIUM
 Cartilage
A. Contains water, but no nerves, vascular & lymph
vessels
B. There are 3 basic types.

     1. Hyaline - smooth, glassy, highly collagenic

          a.articular - joints
          b. costal - ribs
          c. respiratory
          d. laryngeal - larynx
          e. nasal

     2. Elastic
          a. external ear
          b. epiglottis

     3. Fibrocartilage
          a. intervertebral discs
          b. knee joints
HYALINE CARTILAGE
appears as a translucent, bluish-white mass in fresh
conditions
forms the articular surfaces to bone within joints, the
costal cartilages,and the cartilages of the nose, larynx,
trachea, and the bronchi
in the fetus, nearly all the skeleton is first laid down as
HYALINE cartilage, which is replaced later by bone.
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
fresh elastic cartilage has a yellowish color owing to the
presence of elastin in the elastic fibers
found in the external ear, the walls of the external auditory
canals, the eustachian tubes, the epiglottis, and the
cuneiform cartilage in the larynx.
Like hyaline cartilage possesses a perichondrium.
 FIBROCARTILAGE `

transitional form between cartilage and

dense connective tissue
occurs where a tough support or tensile
strength is required
found in the intervertebral disc of certain
other joints
NEVER occurs alone, but merges gradually
into neighboring hyaline cartilage or with
dense fibrous tissue.
Lacks a perichondrium.
 REGENERATION OF CARTILAGE
TISSUE

Except in young children damaged cartilage

regenerates with difficulty and often
incompletely.
It is by an activity of the perichondrium
which invades the injured area and generates
new cartilage.
In extensively damaged areas and occasionally
in small areas, the perichondrium produces a
scar of DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE instead
of forming a NEW CARTILAGE
 Bone as a Tissue
Connective tissue with a matrix hardened by
minerals (calcium phosphate)
Individual bones consist of bone tissue,
marrow, blood, cartilage and periosteum
Continually remodels itself
Functions of the skeletal system
support, protection, movement, electrolyte
balances, acid-base balance and blood formation
• 65% inorganic (Ca)
• 35% organic
(34% collagen, ..)
(1% cells)
 Shapes of Bones

Long bones – levers

acted upon by muscles
Short bones – glide
across one another in
multiple directions
Flat bones – protect soft
organs
 General Features of Bones

Shaft (diaphysis) = cylinder of compact bone

marrow cavity (medullary cavity) lined with
endosteum (osteogenic cells and reticular
connective tissue)
Enlarged ends (epiphyses)
spongy bone covered by compact bone
enlarged to strengthen joint and attach ligaments
Joint surface covered with articular cartilage
Shaft covered with periosteum
outer fibrous layer of collagen
inner osteogenic layer of bone forming cells
Epiphyseal plate (growth plate)
 Structure of a
Long Bone

Compact and
spongy bone
Marrow cavity
Articular cartilage
Periosteum
Structure of a Flat Bone
External and
internal surfaces
composed of
compact bone
Middle layer is
spongy bone and
bone marrow
Skull fracture may
leave inner layer of
compact bone
unharmed
Bone cells
 Cells of Osseous Tissue (1)

Osteogenic cells in endosteum, periosteum or central canals give

rise to new osteoblasts
 arise from embryonic fibroblasts
 multiply continuously
Osteoblasts mineralize organic matter of matrix
Osteocytes are osteoblasts trapped in the matrix they formed
 cells in lacunae connected by gap junctions inside canaliculi
 Cells of Osseous Tissue (2)

Osteoclasts develop in bone marrow by fusion of 3-50

stem cells
Reside in pits that they ate into the bone
 Matrix of Osseous Tissue
Dry weight = 1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic
matter
Organic matter
collagen, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans
and glycoproteins
Inorganic matter
85% hydroxyapatite
10% calcium carbonate
other minerals (fluoride, potassium,
magnesium)
Combination provides for strength and
resilience
minerals resist compression; collagen resists
tension
bone adapts by varying proportions
Histology of Compact Bone
 Compact Bone

Osteon = basic structural unit

cylinders formed from layers (lamellae)
of matrix around central canal (osteonic
canal)
 collagen fibers alternate between right- and
left-handed helices from lamella to lamella
osteocytes connected to each other and
their blood supply by tiny cell processes
in canaliculi
Perforating canals or Volkmann
canals
vascular canals perpendicularly joining
central canals
Blood Vessels of Bone
 Spongy Bone
Spongelike appearance formed by plates of bone
called trabeculae
spaces filled with red bone marrow
Trabeculae have few osteons or central canals
no osteocyte is far from blood of bone marrow
Provides strength with little weight
trabeculae develop along bone’s lines of stress
Spongy Bone Structure and
Stress
Bone Marrow

 In medullary cavity (long bone) and

among trabeculae (spongy bone)
 Red marrow like thick blood
 reticular fibers and immature cells
 Hemopoietic (produces blood cells)
 in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle
and proximal heads of femur and
humerus in adults
 Yellow marrow
 fatty marrow of long bones in adults
 Gelatinous marrow of old age
 yellow marrow replaced with reddish
jelly
 Intramembranous
Ossification

Condensation of mesenchyme into

trabeculae
Osteoblasts on trabeculae lay down
osteoid tissue (uncalcified bone)
Calcium phosphate is deposited in the
matrix forming bony trabeculae of
spongy bone
Osteoclasts create marrow cavity
Osteoblasts form compact bone at
surface
Surface mesenchyme produces
periosteum
 Intramembranous
Ossification 1

Produces flat bones of skull and clavicle.

 Intramembranous Ossification
2

Note the periosteum and osteoblasts.

Stages of Endochondral
Ossification
 Endochondral Ossification
1
Bone develops from pre-existing
model
perichondrium and hyaline cartilage
Most bones develop this process
Formation of primary ossification
center and marrow cavity in shaft of
model
bony collar developed by osteoblasts
chondrocytes swell and die
stem cells give rise to osteoblasts and
clasts
bone laid down and marrow cavity
created
Primary Ossification Center and
Primary Marrow Cavity
 Endochondral
Ossification 2
Secondary ossification centers and marrow
cavities form in ends of bone
same process
Cartilage remains as articular cartilage and
epiphyseal (growth) plates
growth plates provide for increase in length of
bone during childhood and adolescence
by early twenties, growth plates are gone and
primary and secondary marrow cavities
united
Secondary Ossification Centers and
Secondary Marrow Cavities
 The Metaphysis
Zone of reserve cartilage = hyaline
cartilage
Zone of proliferation
 chondrocytes multiply forming columns of flat
lacunae
Zone of hypertrophy = cell enlargement
Zone of calcification
 mineralization of matrix
Zone of bone deposition
 chondrocytes die and columns fill with

osteoblasts
 osteons formed and spongy bone is created
Fetal Skeleton at 12 Weeks
 Bone Growth and
Remodeling
Bones increase in length
 interstitial growth of epiphyseal plate
 epiphyseal line is left behind when cartilage gone
Bones increase in width = appositional growth
 osteoblasts lay down matrix in layers on outer surface and
osteoclasts dissolve bone on inner surface
Bones remodeled throughout life
 Wolff’s law of bone = architecture of bone determined by
mechanical stresses
 action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
 greater density and mass of bone in athletes or manual worker
is an adaptation to stress
Dwarfism

Achondroplastic
long bones stop growing
in childhood
 normal torso, short limbs
spontaneous mutation
during DNA replication
failure of cartilage growth
Pituitary
lack of growth hormone
normal proportions with
short stature
 Other Factors Affecting
Bone
Hormones, vitamins and growth factors
Growth rapid at puberty
hormones stimulate osteogenic cells,
chondrocytes and matrix deposition in
growth plate
girls grow faster than boys and reach full
height earlier (estrogen stronger effect)
males grow for a longer time and taller
Growth stops (epiphyseal plate “closes”)
teenage use of anabolic steroids = premature
closure of growth plate and short adult
stature
 Fractures and Their Repair

Stress fracture caused by trauma

car accident, fall, athletics, etc
Pathological fracture in bone weakened
by disease
bone cancer or osteoporosis
Fractures classified by structural
characteristics
break in the skin
multiple pieces
Types of Bone Fractures
 Healing of Fractures 1

Normally 8 - 12 weeks (longer in

elderly)
Stages of healing
fracture hematoma (1) - clot forms, then
osteogenic cells form granulation tissue
soft callus (2)
 fibroblasts produce fibers and fibrocartilage
hard callus (3)
 osteoblasts produce a bony collar in 6 weeks
remodeling (4) in 3 to 4 months
 spongy bone replaced by compact bone
Healing of Fractures 2
kuis