Intro Fatigue and Fracture - Design Criteria

History of Mechanical Fatigue
19th Century
1829 Albert Repeated Loads

1839 Poncelet “fatigue”
1843 Rankine Stress Concentrations
1860 Wohler Systematic Investigations
1886 Baushinger Cyclic Deformation
1890 Goodman Mean Stresses
1903 Ewing & Humfrey Fatigue Mechanisms
Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 7 of 39

At the dawn of the industrial revolution
The first major transportation

disaster-Versailles accident of
May 11, 1842

Versailles

‘The Times’, May 11, 1842
“I have this day to announce to you one of the most

frightful events that has occurred in modern times. …
The train of the left bank was unusually long; …
from 1500 to 1800 passengers. On arriving between
Meudon and Bellevue the axle tree of the first
engine broke. … The second engine … passed over
it, and the boiler burst … The carriages arrived of
course, and passed over the wreck, when six of
them were
… instantly ignited. Three were totally consumed, …
without the possibility of escape to the unhappy
inmates, who were locked up … The number of killed
is variously estimated (between 40 and 80).”
Early steam engine

Typical broken axle of the 1840s

Expert opinions of the time
 “I never met one which did not present a
crystallization fracture…”
 “the principal causes … are percussion, heat and
magnetism”
 “the change … may take place instantaneously”
 “steam can speedily cause iron to become
magnetic”

Rankine 1820 - 1872
Trained as a civil engineer

William Rankine’s second paper
 Stated that deterioration of axles is gradual
 “the fractures appear to have commenced with a
smooth, regularly-formed, minute fissure, extending
all round the neck of the journal, and penetrating
on an average to a depth of half an inch. … until
the thickness of sound iron in the center became
insufficient to support the shocks to which it was
exposed.”

Rankine ...
 “In all the specimens the iron remained fibrous;
proving that no material change had taken place in
the structure”
 He noted that fractures occurred at sharp corners
 He recommended that the journals be formed with a
large curve in the shoulder (which is exactly right!)

Wöhler 1819 - 1914
Prussian Railway Service
Work done before the development

of the metallurgical microscope
Critical value of stress below

which failure will not occur

Wöhler Tests
Wöhler circa 1850
Fatigue Dynamics circa 2000

Wöhler Observations
 Steel will rupture at stress less than the elastic limit if
the stress is repeated a sufficient number of times
 Stress range rather than maximum stress
determines the number of cycles
 There appears to be a limiting stress range which
may be applied indefinitely without failure
 As the maximum stress increases, the limiting stress
range decreases

Bauschinger 1834 - 1893
Cyclic Behavior of Materials

Bauschinger Effect
Natural Elastic Limit

Goodman
Mechanics Applied to Engineering

John Goodman, 1890
“.. whether the assumptions of the

theory are justifiable or not …. We
adopt it simply because it is the
easiest to use, and for all practical
purposes, represents Wöhlers data.

1903 - Ewing and Humfrey
Cyclic deformation leads

to the development of slip
bands and fatigue cracks
N = 1,000 N = 2,000
N = 10,000 N = 40,000 Nf = 170,000

Ewing and Humfrey (1903) The Fracture of Metals Under Repeated Alterations of Stress,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, A, Vol 221, 241-253
Their Description of Fatigue
The course of the breakdown was as follows: The first

examination, made after a few reversals of the stress,
showed slip lines on some of the crystals … after more
reversals of stress additional slip lines appeared ….
After many reversals they changed into comparatively
wide bands with rather hazily defined edges …
some
parts of the crystals became almost covered with dark
markings …. at this stage some of the crystals had
cracked.
Once an incipient crack forms across a set of crystals, the

effect of further reversals is mainly confined to the
neighborhood of the crack tip.
20th Century
1920 Griffith Fracture Mechanics

1945 Miner Cumulative Damage
1954 Coffin & Manson Plastic Strains
1961 Paris Crack Growth
1963 Peterson Strain-Life Method
1967 Endo Cycle Counting

Griffith 1893-1963
Circa1920 studied scratches and

the effect of surface finish on
fatigue for the Royal Aircraft
Establishment
 a  2E
Griffith (1920) The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids,

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, A, 221, 163-198
Miner
The phenomenon of
cumulative damage under
repeated loads was assumed
to be related to the net work
absorbed by a specimen
“proved” linear damage rule
Miner (1945) Cumulative Damage in Fatigue, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 12, 1945, A159-A164

1954 - Coffin and Manson
Reciprocal of elongation at failure 1/b
Elastic + inelastic strain change
Cycles to failure
Cycles to failure
Manson (1953) Behavior of Materials Under Coffin (1954) A Study of the Effects of Cyclic Thermal
Conditions of Thermal Stress, NACA Technical Stress on a Ductile Metal, Transactions ASME,
Note 2933 Vol. 76, 931-950

1961 - Paris
Paris (1963) The Fracture Mechanics Approach to Fatigue, Proceedings of the Tenth Sagamore
Army Materials Conference, 107-132

1963 Peterson
Peterson (1963) Fatigue of Metals: Part 3 Engineering and Design Aspects,

Materials Research and Standards, 122-139

Endo 1925 - 1989
What could be more basic than

learning to count correctly?
Matsuishi and Endo (1968) Fatigue of Metals Subjected to Varying Stress – Fatigue Lives Under
Random Loading, Proceedings of the Kyushu District Meeting, JSME, 37-40

1980’s – Software Development
Development of
the local strain
approach.
Fatigue crack
growth modeling
established

1990’s Finite Element

2000’s
 Integrated Systems
 Gigacycle Fatigue
 Micro/nano Fatigue

Integrated Systems
MBD Component
Loads
Fatigue
FE
Loading
Locations and Component
Orientations Stress
State

Micro/ Nano Fatigue
Takashima and Higo, “Fatigue and Fracture of a Ni-P Amorphous Alloy Thin Film on the Micrometer Scale”,
Fatigue and Fracture of Engineering Materials and Structures, Vol. 28, No. 8, 2005, 703-710
Things Worth Remembering
 The physics of fatigue has been well known

for over 100 years
 Application of this knowledge still poses
challenges

How relevant is mechanical fatigue?
 A comprehensive study of the cost of fracture in the

United States indicated a $119 billion (in 1982
dollars) cost occurred in 1978 [National Bureau of
Standards].
 This is about 4% of the gross domestic product.
 The investigation emphasized this cost could be

significantly reduced by using proper and current
fatigue design technology.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
All Rights Reserved 33
Ali Fatemi - University of Toledo
The Fatigue Process
 Crack nucleation
 Small crack growth in an elastic-plastic
stress field
 Macroscopic crack growth in a nominally
elastic stress field
 Final fracture
Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 3 of 33

1903 - Ewing and Humfrey
Cyclic deformation leads

to the development of slip
bands and fatigue cracks
N = 1,000 N = 2,000
N = 10,000 N = 40,000 Nf = 170,000

Ewing, J.A. and Humfrey, J.C. “The fracture of metals under repeated alterations of stress”,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Vol. A200, 1903, 241-250
Crack Nucleation

Slip Band in Copper
Polak, J. Cyclic Plasticity and Low Cycle Fatigue Life of Metals, Elsevier, 1991

Slip Band Formation
Extrusion
Undeformed
material
Intrusion
Loading Unloading

Slip Bands
Ma, B-T and Laird C. “Overview of fatigue behavior in copper sinle crystals –II Population, size, distribution and growth
Kinetics of stage I cracks for tests at constant strain amplitude”, Acta Metallurgica, Vol 37, 1989, 337-348
Crack Initiation at Inclusions
Langford and Kusenberger, “Initiation of Fatigue Cracks in 4340 Steel”, Metallurgical Transactions, Vol 4, 1977, 553-559

Subsurface Crack Initiation
Y. Murakami, Metal Fatigue: Effects of Small Defects and Nonmetallic Inclusions, 2002

Stage I and Stage II
loading direction
free
surface
Stage I Stage II
© 2004-2013 Fatigue, How and Why 20 of 141
Stage II Crack Growth
Locally, the crack grows in shear

Macroscopically it grows in tension

FATIGUE MECHANISMS AND
MICROSCOPIC FEATURES
 Most fatigue cracks grow:

 across grain boundaries
(transcrystalline)
Or
 along grain boundaries

(intercrystalline)
depending on the material,

load, and
environmental
conditions.
Ali Fatemi - University of Toledo All Rights Reserved Chapter 3–Micro/Macro Aspects 45
 A wide range of fatigue crack growth

mechanisms can exist
 Three of the more common modes

are:
 striation formation,
 microvoid coalescence, and
 microcleavage
STRIATION FORMATION
 The ripples are called fatigue striations.
 These striations are not the beach marks.

Actually, one beach mark can contain
thousands of striations.
 Electron microscopic magnification between

1,000x and 50,000x must be used to view
striations.
 They may not be seen clearly because of

substantial surface rubbing and pounding
during repeated loading. They are also
difficult to find in high strength materials.
STRIATION FORMATION
 In many studies, each striation has been shown to

represent one load cycle.
 However, several other studies have shown there is not a

one-to-one correspondence between a single striation and
each cycle.
 Thus a combination of other fracture mechanisms along

with striation formation might be responsible for
advancing the crack front.
MICROVOID COALESCENCE
 Microvoid coalescence (MVC) takes place by

the nucleation of microvoids, their growth,
and coalescence during plastic deformation.
 The formation of these voids evolve into

“dimples”. The size and density of
“dimples” is generally related to the
distribution spacing of the inclusions or
precipitates inherent to the metal.
 The process of MVC is generally considered

a high energy process and in fatigue
usually occurs at high crack growth rates.
 The fracture surface due to MVC usually has

a dull & fibrous appearance.
MICROCLEAVAGE
 Microcleavage crack growth is considered a

lower energy process and therefore an
undesirable fatigue crack growth
mechanism.
 Cleavage or microcleavage involves

fracture along specific crystallographic
planes and is transcrystalline in nature.
 Cleavage facets are usually flat, and often

contain several parallel ridges or cleavage
planes.
MICROCLEAVAGE
 The fracture surface appearance from cleavage is

usually bright and appears shiny due to the high
reflectivity of the flat cleavage facets.
 Cleavage is regarded as the most “brittle” form of

fracture in crystalline materials.
 The likelihood for cleavage is increased whenever

plastic flow is restricted, such as
 at low temperature,
 high strain rate, or in
 notched components.
 Materials that exhibit ductile behavior often display

appreciable striations and microvoid coalescence.
 Microvoid coalescence and cleavage are fracture

mechanisms that can occur under either monotonic or
cyclic loading conditions.
 Striations do not occur under monotonic loading

conditions as their formation relies on the cyclic nature
of fatigue.
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE TYPICAL
STAGES OF THE FATIGUE DAMAGE PROCESS
Crack Nucleation Summary
 Highly localized plastic deformation

 Surface phenomena
 Stochastic process

Fatigue Design Flow Chart
Ali Fatemi - University of Toledo All Rights Reserved Chapter 2–Fatigue Design Methods 55
Design Criteria
 Infinite Life
 Safe Life
 Life Safe
 Damage Tolerant
 Design codes

FATIGUE DESIGN CRITERIA
 Criteria for fatigue design have evolved from infinite

life to damage tolerance.
 Each of the successively developed criteria still has its
place, depending on the application.
 The criteria for fatigue design include usage of the four
fatigue life models (S-N, -N, da/dN-K, two-stage
method).
 These criteria are:
 Infinite-Life Design
 Safe-Life Design
 Fail-Safe Design
 Damage-Tolerant Design
Ali Fatemi - 57
 Infinite-Life Design
 Unlimited safety is the oldest criterion.
 It requires local stresses or strains to be essentially
elastic and safely below the fatigue limit.
 For parts subjected to many millions of cycles, like
engine valve springs, this is still a good design
criterion.
 This criterion may not be economical (i.e. global
competitiveness) or practical (i.e. excessive weight
of aircraft) in many design situations.
 Safe-Life Design
 The practice of designing for a finite life is known as "safe-life"
design.
 It is used in many industries, for instance automotive industry, in
pressure vessel design, and in jet engine design.
 The calculations may be based on stress-life, strain-life, or crack
growth relations.
 Ball bearings and roller bearings are examples of safe-life
design.
 The safe life must include a margin for the scatter of fatigue
results and for other unknown factors.
 Suitable for inaccessible or difficult to maintain parts, or for
non-redundant components: nose landing gear, some
aircraft engines.
Safe Life
500
Stress Amplitude, MPa

400
300
200
99 90 50 10 1
Percent Survival
100
0
104 105 106 107 108 109
Fatigue Life
Choose an appropriate risk and replace critical parts

after some specified interval

 Fail-Safe Design
 Fail-safe design requires that if one part fails, the
system does not fail.
 Fail-safe design recognizes that fatigue cracks may
occur and structures are arranged so that cracks will
not lead to failure of the structure before they are
detected and repaired.
 Multiple load paths, load transfer between members,
crack stoppers built at intervals into the structure, and
inspection are some of the means used to achieve
fail- safe design.
Ali Fatemi - University of Toledo All Rights Reserved Chapter 2–Fatigue Design Methods
10
Example of Fail-Safe Design
Lap joint of fuselage panels

Example of Fail-Safe Design
Leak Before Break (LBB)
• Elliptical circumferential crack on

pressure vessel
• Crack must grow stable through the

whole wall trickness, causing a
detectable leak.
 Damage-Tolerant Design
 This philosophy is a refinement of the fail-safe
philosophy.
 It assumes that cracks will exist, caused either by
processing or by fatigue, and uses fracture mechanics
analyses and tests to check whether such cracks will
grow large enough to produce failures before they are
detected by periodic inspection.
 Three key items are needed for successful damage-
tolerant design:
 residual strength,
 fatigue crack growth behavior, and
 crack detection involving nondestructive inspection.
64
Damage Tolerant
Inspection
Crack size
a2
a1
Safe Operating Life
Cycles
Inspect for cracks larger than a1

and repair
Milestone cases in fatigue design criteria
• Crack arresters
• Made crack growth an
essential field of study
• Safe-life approach is
vulnerable to initial flaws
• Life-safe qpproach requires
testing and inspections.
Damage tolerance.
• The study of ageing
structures became
relevant.
Inspection
A Boeing 777 costs $250,000,000
A new car costs $25,000
For every $1 spent inspecting and maintaining a

B 777 you can spend only 0.01¢ on a car

STRATEGIES IN FATIGUE
DESIGN
Four fatigue life models exist:
1. Nominal stress-life (S-N) method

 First formulated in the 1850s to 1870s.
 Uses nominal stresses and relates these to local fatigue
strengths for notched and unnotched members.
2. Local strain-life (-N) method

 First formulated in the 1960s.
 Local strain at a notch is related to smooth specimen strain-
controlled fatigue behavior.
 Analytical models can be used to determine local strains from
global or nominal stresses or strains.
68
STRATEGIES IN FATIGUE DESIGN
3. Fatigue crack growth (da/dN-K) method

 First formulated in the 1960s.
 Requires the use of fracture mechanics to obtain the number
of cycles to grow a crack from a given length to another length
and/or to fracture.
 This model can be considered a total fatigue life model when
used in conjunction with existing initial crack size following
manufacture.
STRATEGIES IN FATIGUE DESIGN
4. Two-stage method by combining 2 and 3 to

incorporate both fatigue crack nucleation and growth.
 Incorporates the local -N model to obtain the life to the
formation of a small macrocrack and then
integration of the fatigue crack growth rate equation for the
remaining life.
 The two lives are added together to obtain the total fatigue
life.
All four of these fatigue life models are covered in this course/book
and each have areas ofbest applicability.
Characterization
 Stress Life Curve
 Fatigue Limit
 Strain Life Curve
 Cyclic Stress Strain Curve
 Crack Growth Curve
 Threshold Stress Intensity

Intro Fatigue and Fracture - Design Criteria

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History of Mechanical Fatigue

1829 Albert Repeated Loads

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 7 of 39

The first major transportation

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 8 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 9 of 39

“I have this day to announce to you one of the most

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 11 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 12 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 13 of 39

Trained as a civil engineer

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 14 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 15 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 16 of 39

Prussian Railway Service

Work done before the development

Critical value of stress below

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 17 of 39

Wöhler circa 1850

Fatigue Dynamics circa 2000

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 18 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 19 of 39

Cyclic Behavior of Materials

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 20 of 39

Mechanics Applied to Engineering

“.. whether the assumptions of the

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 21 of 39

Cyclic deformation leads

N = 10,000 N = 40,000 Nf = 170,000

The course of the breakdown was as follows: The first

Once an incipient crack forms across a set of crystals, the

1920 Griffith Fracture Mechanics

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 24 of 39

Circa1920 studied scratches and

Griffith (1920) The Phenomena of Rupture and Flow in Solids,

“proved” linear damage rule

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 28 of 39

Elastic + inelastic strain change

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 29 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 30 of 39

Peterson (1963) Fatigue of Metals: Part 3 Engineering and Design Aspects,

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 31 of 39

What could be more basic than

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 32 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 33 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 34 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 35 of 39

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 36 of 39

 The physics of fatigue has been well known

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie,, All Rights Reserved 39 of 39

 A comprehensive study of the cost of fracture in the

 This is about 4% of the gross domestic product.

 The investigation emphasized this cost could be

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 3 of 33

Cyclic deformation leads

N = 10,000 N = 40,000 Nf = 170,000

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 5 of 33

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 6 of 33

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 7 of 33

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 9 of 33

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 10 of 33

Locally, the crack grows in shear

Fatigue Seminar © 2002-2011 Darrell Socie, All Rights Reserved 21 of 33

 Most fatigue cracks grow: