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Eye movement
Version
Movement Vergence Movement
Papillae
• The taste buds are bunched together in lumps
on the tongue called papillae (Greek: pimples)
that can be easily seen on the tongue.
• The taste bud contains the taste cells and from
each cell starts the nerve fiber.
• The chemical substance in the saliva enters
through the taste pores and stimulates taste
cells.
• The taste cells are replaced by new cells about
every 10 days.
OLFACTION
Olfaction
• Smell is technically known as the olfaction. The stimulus is the
chemical substance but it should be volatile in nature.
• Similar to taste, we seem to be able to smell only a seven
primary odors:
– Resinous – Etheral (pears); – Putrid (rotten
(camphor) – Musky (musk oil); eggs).
– Floral (roses) – Acrid (vinegar) and
– Minty
(peppermint)
• For most animals, smell is important for both survival and
communication.
Sensation
• The olfactory organs in dogs are much larger than those in humans.
• In many animals, smell provides the dominant means of
communication. for example, Some animal release chemicals called
pheromones, which cause specific and predictable reactions in
other animals.
• The pheromone bombykol is released by the female silkworm moth
to attract a male and trigger the behavior necessary for mating.
• Honeybees are capable of releasing an alarm pheromone that
signals other bees to attack objects in the vicinity of their hive.
Receptor
• The receptor organ for the smell is the
nose.
• The upper most layer of the nasal cavity
has the brownish mucous membrane called 3
as olfactory epithelium.
1
• It has many small hair cells called olfactory 2
cells.
• The nerve fibers from the olfactory cells
enters into the brain through olfactory
bulb.
KINESTHETIC
Kinesthetic
• This is the sense of the movement.
• Even after closing our eyes we can sense the movement of our
body parts and it is because of kinesthetic sense or kinesthesis.
• It is the sense that tells you where the parts of your body are
with respect to one another.
• Meaning:
– Kinesthetic is the sensory organ that monitors the positions of
the various parts of the body.
– The sense of body position and movement of body parts.
Kinesthetic
• The receptor cells are the nerve endings embedded in the muscles,
tendons and joints.
• Specialized nerve endings called stretch receptors are attached to
muscle fibers, and different nerve endings called golgi tendon
organs are attached to the tendons which connects the muscles to
bones.
• Receptors in muscle fibers and tendons send information to the
brain about the stretching of muscles.
Kinesthetic
• When the position of your bones changes, as when you move
your arms and legs, receptors in the joints transduce this
mechanical energy into neural activity, providing information
about both the rate of change and the angle of the bones.
VESTIBULAR
Vestibular
• This is the sense of equilibrium or body balance.
• It gives us information about body position, movement, and
acceleration—factors critical for maintaining our sense of
balance.
• We usually become aware of our vestibular sense after activities
that make us feel dizzy, like amusement park rides that involve
rapid acceleration or spinning motions.
• The stimuli for vestibular sense include movements such as
spinning, falling and tilting the body or head.
Vestibular
• The sensory organs for the
vestibular sense are located in the
inner ear.
• The receptors are located in the
semi circular canals that are
located above the cochlea of the
inner ear.
• It is filled with the fluid
endolymph and it also has the
nerve fibers.
Vestibular
• If you have been twirling around and
come to an abrupt halt, the fluid in your
semicircular canals does not immediately
return to its neutral state.
• The after effect fools your dizzy brain with
the sensation that you are still spinning.
• This sense is more important for balancing act as in circus or
space ship.
• Problem with the semicircular canal will lead to motion sickness
or sea sickness and the symptoms include dizziness and nausea.
PERCEPTION
Sensation
• This is the concept related to sensation. Sensation refers to the initial
detection of the stimulus.
• Perception is interpretation of the things we sense.
• The term perception involves higher order cognition in the
interpretation of sensory information.
• Definition:-
– Perception is the organization of sensory information into
meaningful experiences.
– Perception can be defined as the cognitive process of selecting
(attention), organizing and interpretation of stimulus (sensation).
Nature of perception
• For perception stimulus is required
• Perception is selective
• Perception is subjective because different individual gives
different meaning to the same stimulus (object, person or
the event)
• Perception influences our emotions and behavior.
Attention-Focus
• Environment of an individual bombards them with unlimited
sensory inputs.
• We cannot absorb all of the available sensory information. But, we
selectively attend to certain aspects of our environment while
neglecting others to the background.
• Selective attention has obvious advantages, since it allows us to
maximize information gained from the object of our focus while
reducing sensory interference from other irrelevant sources
• Studies have shown that people can focus so intently on one task
that they fail to notice other events occurring simultaneously—
even very salient ones
Attention-Focus
• Although we control the focus of our attention, at least to some
extent, certain characteristics of stimuli can cause our attention
to shift suddenly.
• Features such as contrast, novelty, stimulus intensity, color, and
sudden change tend to attract our attention.
• This ability to shift the attention has a crucial survival value.
• Sudden movement, loud noise, noxious odors, somesthesis in
ear.
Principles
• Rather than passively responding to the external stimuli
we have the tendency to actively attempt to organize and
make sense of those stimulus.
• Perception is a constructive process by which we go
beyond the stimuli that are presented to us and attempt
to construct a meaningful situation.
• Some of the most basic perceptual processes can be
described by a series of principles that focus on the
ways we organize bits and pieces of information into
meaningful wholes known as Gestalt Principles.
Gestalt Principles Law of similarity
Principles
Law of Simplicity
Color Constancy
Sensation Conscious
A
Processes c
t
Memory Attention
i
Automatic o
Thoughts Process
n
Types of Attention
• Vigilance
• Search
• Selective Attention
• Divided Attention
• Sustained Attention
Type Description Example
Vigilance It refers to a person’s ability to attend to a field of Sonar reading, Smell of leaking
stimulation over a prolonged period, during which gas or smoke.
(Cautious about the incoming
the person seeks to detect the appearance of a stimuli)
particular target stimulus of interest.
Search It refers to a scan of the environment for particular If we detect smoke or gas leak,
features—actively looking for something when you we engage in active search of
the source of it to put it of.
are not sure where it will appear.
Selective It refers to an ability to focus on a particular salient Listening to lecture by ignoring
Attention stimuli by simultaneously inhibiting the focus your disturbing friend.
towards unwanted stimuli.
Divided It refers to focusing attention on more than one Talking over phone while driving
Attention stimuli at a time.
Sustained It refers to the ability to focus on one specific task for Reading a book, Listening to the
Attention a continuous amount of time without being lecture till the end.
Continuous selective attention
distracted.
Importance of Attention
• Attention has a survival value of detecting and responding to
threatful stimulus.
• Attention is one of the primary and most important psychological
process.
• It provides the base for further higher order cognitive processes
like perception, learning and memory. Without which those
higher order cognitive processes doesn’t exists.
• It helps in monitoring our interaction with the environment
Importance of Attention
• It assists us in linking our past (memories) and our present
(sensations) to give us a sense of continuity of experience.
• It helps us in controlling and planning for our future actions.
Broadbent Theory of Attention- Early Filter
• This theory states that the information from multiple sensory
organs are filtered the sensory filter level even before it reaches
perceptual processors.
• The filter permits only one channel of sensory information to
proceed and reach the processes of perception. We thereby
assign meaning to our sensations.
• Other stimuli will be filtered out at the
sensory level and may never reach the
level of perception.
Treisman’s Theory of Attention- (Attenuation)
• Sometimes the unattended messages pass through the filter.
• Shadowing experiment (Participants picked few words/
messages from the unattended ear).
• Treisman also observed that some fluently bilingual participants
noticed the identity of messages if the unattended message was
a translated version of the attended one.
• This theory states that, instead of blocking out sensory
information in the sensory filter level, we tend to attenuates
(weakens) the strength of irrelevant stimuli.
Treisman’s Theory of Attention- (Attenuation)
• If previously considered salient stimuli doesn’t produce much meaning
in the perception or if the attuned stimuli carries some very important
piece of information, the attuned stimuli will be pass on to the
perceptual level.
• In a next step, we perceptually analyze the meaning of the stimuli and
their relevance to us, so that even a message from the unattended ear
that is supposedly irrelevant can come into consciousness and
influence our subsequent actions if it has some
meaning for us.
Deutsch’s Theory of Attention- Later Filter
• This theory suggested that stimuli are filtered out only after they
have been analyzed for both their physical properties and their
meaning.
• This later filtering would allow people to recognize information
entering the unattended ear.
• Note that proponents of both the early and the late-filtering propose
that there is an attentional filter through which
only a single source of information
can pass.
Synthesized model
• A Synthesis of Early-Filter and Late-Filter Models have data to support
them. So In 1967, Ulric Neisser in 1967, synthesized those models and
proposed that there are two processes governing attention:
• Pre-attentive processes: These automatic processes are rapid and occur
in parallel. They can be used to notice only physical sensory
characteristics of the unattended message. But they do not decode
meaning or relationships.
• Attentive, Controlled processes: These processes occur later. They are
executed serially and consume time and attentional resources, such as
working memory. They also can be used to observe relationships among
features. They serve to synthesize fragments into a mental
representation of an object.