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cladding
core
Question:
If we send light down a channel
waveguide, what are we gonna see
? at the waveguide output facet?
A B C D E
It is necessary to know the mode profile for
many important technical applications
Bias applied via a pair of metal
contact pads across a LiNbO3
waveguide to induce phase
change of the light signal
(electro-optic effect)
Small distance between
contact pads -> high electric
field -> larger phase shift
? Optical loss induced by metal
contacts
Dependent on mode profile
What is a waveguide mode?
A propagation mode of a waveguide at a given wavelength is a
stable shape in which the wave propagates.
Waves in the form of such a mode of a given waveguide retain
exactly the same cross-sectional shape (complex amplitude) as
they move down the waveguide.
Waveguide mode profiles are
wavelength dependent
Waveguide modes at any given
wavelength are completely
determined by the cross-
sectional geometry and
refractive index profile of the
waveguide
Reading: Definition of Modes
1-d optical confinement: slab waveguide
1 ∂2
Wave equation: (∇ − 2 2 2 ) E = 0
2
n c 0 ∂t
with spatially non-uniform refractive index
Helmholtz equation:
2π / β
d2
z [ 2 + k 2 − β 2 ]U ( x ) = 0
dx
k = nk0 = nω/c
effective index
Propagation constant: β = neff k0
Propagation constant is related to
the wavelength (spatial periodicity) Field boundary conditions
of light propagating in the waveguide
Quantum mechanics =
? Guided wave optics
… The similarity between physical equations allows physicists to gain
understanding in fields besides their own area of expertise… -- R. P. Feynman
n
Fraction of optical power confined core
n cε ∫ ∫E dxdy
2
core 0
∞
When the core is absorptive with an absorption
coefficient Kcore (imaginary part of refractive index)
Waveguide loss due to absorption Kwaveguide = ΓKcore
Higher order mode: smaller confinement factor
Wavelength confinement factor Γ
Waveguide dispersion of slab modes
waveguide dispersion
short λ long λ
high ω low ω β = neff k0 = neff ω/c0
nclad ω/c0
Group velocity vg: velocity of
wave packets (information)
dω c0 dω c0 ω
vg = Group index ng = = c0 neff = = c0
dβ vg dβ vp β
Effective index: spatial periodicity (phase)
Waveguide effective index is always smaller than core index
Group index: information velocity (wave packet)
In waveguides, group index can be greater than core index!
2-d confinement & effective index method
Channel waveguide Rib/ridge waveguide
Directly solving 2-d
nclad Helmholtz equation for
nclad
U(x,y)
ncore ncore
Deconvoluting the 2-d
nclad equation into two 1-d
problems
Separation of variables
Solve for U’(x) & U”(y)
U(x,y) ~ U’(x) U”(y)
nclad neff,core nclad neff,clad neff,core neff,clad Less accurate for high-
index-contrast
waveguide systems
y EIM mode solver:
x http://wwwhome.math.utwente.nl/~hammerm/eims.html
z http://wwwhome.math.utwente.nl/~hammer/eimsinout.html
Optical loss in waveguides
x Loss in silica fibers
Single-crystal
Silicon
Silicon substrate
neff + Δn
neff - Δn
Coupled mode theory http://
wwwhome.math.utwente.nl/~hammer/Wmm_M
Symmetric ≈ +
(U 1 + U 2 ) ⋅ exp[ikz ⋅ ( neff + ∆n )] U1 U2
Anti-symmetric ≈ +
(U1 − U 2 ) ⋅ exp[ ikz ⋅ ( neff − ∆n )] U1 − U 2 = U 2 exp( iπ )
z
2
Waveguide directional coupler
Beating length π/kβ Symmetric Asymmetric waveguide
coupler directional coupler
r e wopl aci t p O
r e wopl aci t p O
Propagation distance Propagation distance
3dB direction
coupler
WG 1 WG 2
Cladding
a1 In a linear, unidirectional
a2 single-mode 4-port device,
the complex amplitude of input
& output light is correlated by:
Cascadability:
a = Ktotal b a1 k11 k12 b1
=
a 2 k 21 k 22 b2
Ktotal = KnKn − 1... K 1
a = Kb
a1 b1
Linear
device 1
Linear
device 2
… Linear
device n
a2 b2
Boundary conditions
Guided wave optics Quantum mechanics
Polarization dependent!
Core y
Cladding
x
Substrate z
Core y
Cladding
x
Substrate z
x Discontinuity
of field due to
boundary
condition!
Slot waveguide
Field concentration in low index material
y slot
Use low index material for:
x • Light emission
z • Light modulation
Cladding • Plasmonic waveguiding