E6032

COMPUTER
NETWORKING
Pn. Fazida Adlan
PSSAAS
JKE
What is Computer Networking?
 Computer Networking is the joining of two or more
computers in order for them to communicate or jointly
access a server. They can be joined permanently via
fixed cables or via modems.
 Networking is the practice of linking computing
devices together with hardware and software that
supports data communications across these devices.
 You can use this kind of network to share files, a
printer or another peripheral device, and even an
Internet connection. To connect two computers for
sharing network resources, consider these alternatives.
Characteristics and advantages of a
Computer Network
 The primary purpose of a computer network is to
share resources:
 Play a CD music from one computer while sitting on
another computer
 You may have a computer with a CD writer or a
backup system but the other computer doesn’t have
it; In this case, you can burn CDs or make backups
on a computer that has one of these but using data
from a computer that doesn’t have a CD writer or a
backup system
 You may have a computer that doesn’t have a DVD
player. In this case, you can place a movie DVD on
the computer that has a DVD player, and then view
the movie on a computer that lacks a DVD player
Continue…

 You can connect a printer (or a scanner, or a fax machine) to

one computer and let other computers of the network print (or
scan, or fax) to that printer (or scanner, or fax machine)
 You can place a CD with pictures on one computer and let
other computers access those pictures
 You can create files and store them in one computer, then
access those files from the other computer(s) connected to it
 Examples of network

A computer network can be two computers

connected:

A computer network can also consist of, and is

usually made for, more than two computers
 Categorizes of users in cn
 Highly Managed

 Configuration for process workers - requires highly restricted

configurations - few applications. Suitable for marketing,
processing claims and loans, and serving customers.

 A highly managed desktop has the following characteristics:

 Users working different shifts can share the computer. Each user
needs a unique logon account.

 Users can customize a limited number of application-specific

settings.

 Users can access their data from any computer.

 User data is stored on server shares, and users do not store data
locally
 Categorizes of users in cn
 Lightly Managed

 Requires a lot of control over their computers, in an organization

where highly managed desktops are not acceptable to users, or
where desktop management is highly delegated.

 The lightly managed desktop has a minimal set of restrictions that

help reduce desktop support costs and user down time:

 Users can customize most settings that affect them but are
prevented from making unauthorized system changes.

 Users can log on to any computer on the network and access their
data.

 User data is saved on server shares and is not stored locally.

 Categorizes of users in cn
 Mobile User

 A mobile user configuration is appropriate for managing mobile

users — travelling users who often use portable computers.
Mobile users typically log on to the same computer, and they
connect by both high speed and low speed.

 The following characteristics apply to mobile-user desktops:

 Can be configured so that users have access to user data whether

the computer is connected to or not connected to the network.

 Can save data locally or on network servers.

 Can be configured so that users can disconnect from the network

without logging off or shutting down, and to have data files
synchronized automatically.
 Categorizes of users in cn
 Multiuser

 The multiuser desktop is appropriate for environments such as a

university laboratory, public computing center, or a library where users
might be allowed to save some customizations, such as desktop
wallpaper and color scheme preferences, but are prevented from
changing hardware or connection settings.

 A multiuser configuration has the following characteristics:

 The system is mostly restricted, but some personal settings are allowed.
 Users can log on and use a configured roaming profile.
 Users share this computer with other users either by having a unique
logon account or by using a Guest account.
 User data is saved on server shares, and users do not store data locally.
 Categorizes of users in cn
 Kiosk

 The term kiosk in this context refers to a public workstation that runs
only one application and one user account, runs unattended, and
automatically logs on. Users are unknown to the kiosk owner and do not
provide logon credentials. A kiosk workstation is highly secure, simple
to operate. Users can not change the default settings.
 Use the kiosk desktop in a public area where multiple users access the
computer or where you want to prevent users from making any
customizations. For example, the kiosk is frequently used in airports
where passengers check in and view their flight information.
 The following characteristics apply to the kiosk desktop:
 The system is highly restricted by applying policy settings.

 Users cannot customize the installed applications.

 Users cannot save data to the computer locally or to the network.
 The computer can be in a stand-alone environment without any network
connectivity.
 Users cannot add or remove applications.
 Users are anonymous, and all users share the same user account.
Categorizes of users in Computer Network
 Task Station

 Use the task station desktop — an entry terminal for orders on a

manufacturing floor or in a call center, for example — for data
entry workers when you need dedicated computers to run a single
application.
 A task station configuration has the following characteristics:
 The computer is dedicated to running a single application.

 Users on different shifts often share computers.

 Each user has a unique logon account.

 Many users roam between multiple computers that run the same
single application.

 User data is saved on server shares and can be stored locally.

Types of network - LAN
Types of network - MAN
Types of network - WAN
 What is intranet?
 An intranet is a private network that is contained
within an enterprise. It may consist of many
interlinked local area networks and also use leased
lines in the wide area network. Typically, an
intranet includes connections through one or more
gateway computers to the outside Internet. The
main purpose of an intranet is to share company
information and computing resources among
employees. An intranet can also be used to
facilitate working in groups and for
teleconferences.
 And what is internet?

•The Internet is a global system

of interconnected computer
networks that interchange data by
packet switching using the
standardized Internet Protocol
Suite (TCP/IP).
•It is a "network of networks"
that consists of millions of
private and public, academic,
business, and government
networks of local to global scope.
•Linked by copper wires, fibre
optic cables, wireless
connections, and other
technologies.
 Client and Server Computer
 A client is an application or system that accesses a
remote service on another computer system, known as a
server, by way of a network. The term was first applied
to devices that were not capable of running their own
stand-alone programs, but could interact with remote
computers via a network. These dumb terminals were
clients of the time-sharing mainframe computer.
 A server is a computer program that provides services
to other computer programs (and their users), in the
same or other computer. The physical computer that
runs a server program is also often referred to as server.
Characteristics of a client
 Initiates requests

 Waits for replies

 Receives replies

 Usually connects to a small number of servers at one

time
 Typically interacts directly with end-users using a
graphical user interface

Characteristics of a server
 Never initiates requests or activities

 Waits for and replies to requests from connected

clients
 A server can remotely install/uninstall applications
and transfer data to the intended clients
 Peer to peer (p2p)
 A peer-to-peer (or P2P) computer network uses diverse
connectivity between participants in a network.

 P2P networks are typically used for connecting nodes via

largely ad hoc connections. Such networks are useful for
many purposes. Sharing content files (see file sharing)
containing audio, video, data or anything in digital format
is very common, and real time data, such as telephony
traffic, is also passed using P2P technology.

 A pure P2P network does not have the notion of clients or

servers but only equal peer nodes that simultaneously
function as both "clients" and "servers" to the other nodes
on the network.

 This model of network arrangement differs from the client-

server model where communication is usually to and from a
central server.
P2P Networking Illustration Client Server Networking
 Advantages of Client Server Network
 In most cases, a client-server architecture enables the roles
and responsibilities of a computing system to be distributed
among several independent computers that are known to
each other only through a network. This creates an
additional advantage to this architecture: greater ease of
maintenance. For example, it is possible to replace, repair,
upgrade, or even relocate a server while its clients remain
both unaware and unaffected by that change. This
independence from change is also referred to as
encapsulation.

 All the data is stored on the servers, which generally have

far greater security controls than most clients. Servers can
better control access and resources, to guarantee that only
those clients with the appropriate permissions may access
and change data.
Advantages of Client Server Network
 Since data storage is centralized, updates to that data
are far easier to administer than what would be
possible under a P2P paradigm. Under a P2P
architecture, data updates may need to be distributed
and applied to each "peer" in the network, which is
both time-consuming and error-prone, as there can be
thousands or even millions of peers.
 Many mature client-server technologies are already
available which were designed to ensure security,
'friendliness' of the user interface, and ease of use.
 It functions with multiple different clients of different
capabilities.
 Disadvantages of CSN vs. P2P

 Traffic congestion on the network has been an

issue since the inception of the client-server
paradigm.
 As the number of simultaneous client requests
to a given server increases, the server can
become severely overloaded.
 Contrast that to a P2P network, where its
bandwidth actually increases as more nodes are
added, since the P2P network's overall
bandwidth can be roughly computed as the sum
of the bandwidths of every node in that network.
 Disadvantages of CSN vs. P2P
 The client-server paradigm lacks the robustness of
a good P2P network.
 Under client-server, should a critical server fail,
clients’ requests cannot be fulfilled.
 In P2P networks, resources are usually distributed
among many nodes. Even if one or more nodes
depart and abandon a downloading file, for
example, the remaining nodes should still have the
data needed to complete the download
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES OF
LAN
 Network topology is the study of the arrangement or
mapping of the elements(links, nodes) of a network,
especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual)
interconnections between nodes.[
 A local area network (LAN) is one example of a
network that exhibits both a physical topology and a
logical topology.
 Any given node in the LAN will have one or more
links to one or more other nodes in the network and the
mapping of these links and nodes onto a graph results
in a geometrical shape that determines the physical
topology of the network.
 PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES OF
LAN
 Likewise, the mapping of the flow of data between
the nodes in the network determines the logical
topology of the network.
 The physical and logical topologies might be
identical in any particular network but they also
may be different.
 Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal
types may differ in two networks and yet their
topologies may be identical.
 LAN TOPOLOGY : BUS

 All nodes on the LAN are connected by one linear

cable - called the shared medium.
 Every node on this cable segment sees
transmissions from every other station on the same
segment.
 At each end of the bus is a terminator, which
absorbs any signal, removing it from the bus.
 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) is the protocols used for
this type of LAN.
LAN TOPOLOGY: BUS
 Advantages:
 Easy to remove or extend network
 Easy to set up network
 Easy to manage the physical wired used in network
 Disadvantages:
 Slow transmission of data – one by one
 If the main cable down, whole network down
 LAN TOPOLOGY : STAR
 All stations are connected by cable (or wireless) to a central
point, such as hub or a switch.
 If the central node is operating in a broadcast fashion such
as a Hub, transmission of a frame from one station to the
node is retransmitted on all of the outgoing links.
 In this case, although the arrangement is physically a star, it
is logically a bus.
 In the case of the central node acting as switch, an incoming
frame is processed in the node and then retransmitted on an
outgoing link to the destination station.
 Ethernet protocols (IEEE 802.3) are often used in the Star
topology LAN.
 LAN TOPOLOGY: STAR
 Advantages :
 Fast transmission
 Easy to remove or expand

 Disadvantages :
 Central Point down, network down
 Cost high
 LAN TOPOLOGY : RING
 All nodes on the LAN are connected in a loop and their
Network Interface Cards (NIC) are working as repeaters.
 There is no starting or ending point. Each node will repeat
any signal that is on the network regardless its destination.
 The destination station recognizes its address and copies the
frame into a local buffer as it goes by.
 The frame continues to circulate until it returns to the source
station, where it is removed.
 Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) is the most popular Ring topology
protocol. FDDI (IEEE 802.6) is another protocol used in the
Ring topology, which is based on the Token Ring.
 LAN TOPOLOGY : RING

 Advantages:
 All nodes on the network have equal chance of
transmitting
data.                                                      
 Growth of system has minimal impact on
performance.
 Disadvantages:
 If one of the nodes ones down then the whole
network may go down.
 Difficult to add and delete nodes to /from the
ring. 
 LAN TOPOLOGY : TREE
 Tree: The tree topology is a logical extension of the
bus topology.
 The transmission medium is a branching cable with
no closed loops.
 The tree layout begins at a point called the head-
end, where one or more cables start, and each of
these may have branches.
 The branches in turn may have additional branches
to allow quite complex layouts.
 LAN TOPOLOGY : TREE
Advantages of a Tree Topology
 Point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.
 Supported by several hardware and
software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited
by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire
segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than
other topologies.
 LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
 Also called signal topology.
 The way that the devices on a network are arranged
and how they communicate - called the physical
topology.
 Logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the
signals act on the network media
 the way data passes through network from one
device to the next without regard to the physical
interconnection of the devices.
 LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
 Logical topologies are bound to the network
protocols that direct how the data moves across a
network. The Ethernet protocol is a common
logical bus topology protocol.
 Token Ring is a common logical ring topology
protocol.
 A network's logical topology is not necessarily the
same as its physical topology.
 For example, twisted pair Ethernet is a logical bus
topology in a physical star topology layout.
 NETWORKING DEVICES
 a. Network Interface Card / Network Adaptor
(NIC)
 b. Repeaters
 c. Hubs
 d. Bridges
 e. Switches
 f. Bridge Modem
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
- NIC
 Also known as network card, network adapter,
network interface controller (NIC), network
interface card, or LAN adapter.
 computer hardware - designed to allow computers to
communicate over a computer network.
 It is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer) and layer 2
(data link layer) device
 Provides physical access to a networking medium and
provides a low-level addressing system through the use
of MAC addresses.
 It allows users to connect to each other either by using
cables or wirelessly.
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
 Network card typically has a twisted pair, BNC, or
AUI socket where the network cable is connected,
 A few LEDs to inform the user of whether the
network is active, and whether or not there is data
being transmitted on it.
 Network Cards are typically available in
10/100/1000 Mbit/s varieties.
 Meaning they can support a transfer rate of 10, 100
or 1000 Megabits per second.
BNC AND AUI CONNECTORS
 REPEATER
 A network repeater is a device used to expand the
boundaries of a wired or wireless (WiFi) local area
network (LAN).
 In the past, wired network repeaters were used to
join segments of Ethernet cable.
 The repeaters would amplify the data signals before
sending them on to the uplinked segment, thereby
countering signal decay that occurs over extended
lengths of wire.
 REPEATER
 A WiFi network repeater will pick up the signal from a
wireless router and amplify it, propagating signal
strength to boost distance and coverage of the WLAN.
 For example, assume an upstairs office gets only a
weak signal from a router located in the basement.
 The building might have a steel infrastructure, cordless
phones and other forms of interference. One option is
to relocate the router on another floor to see if the
entire building can be covered, but this isn’t always
convenient.
 REPEATER
 Transmits information by receiving the information on
one cable segment - repeating the received information
onto the other cable segment to which it is attached.
 may perform a variety of signal processing operations
on the received data before it is repeated, such as signal
amplification, signal retiming, preamble insertion, etc.
 Repeaters in LANs are simple devices for broadcasting
data packets originating at one port of the repeater to
all other ports
 REPEATER
 A network repeater typically has four, eight, or sixteen ports.
 Any transmission to any of the ports is repeated to all the
other ports on the repeater
 Performs signal amplitude and timing restoration on an
incoming bit stream and repeats the bit stream to all of the
ports connected
 By repeating data to all ports - acts as a logical coaxial cable
so that any node connected to the network will see another
node's transmission.
 Multiport repeaters, also referred to as hubs or wiring
concentrators, allow interconnection of a number of network
segments at the physical layer of the network protocol.
 HUB
 A common connection point for devices in a network.
 Commonly used to connect segments of a LAN.
 Contains multiple ports.
 When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other
ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
 A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data,
enabling it to go from one device (or segment) to another.
 Intelligent hubs - enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in
the hub. Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs.
 Switching hub, actually reads the destination address of
each packet and then forwards the packet to the correct port.
HUB
HUB
 BRIDGE
 A network bridge connects multiple network segments at
the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model.
 Bridges are similar to repeaters or network hubs, devices
that connect network segments at the physical layer;
 However, with bridging, traffic from one network is
managed rather than simply rebroadcast to adjacent network
segments.
 In Ethernet networks, the term "bridge" formally means a
device that behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D
 Bridges tend to be more complex than hubs or repeaters due
to the fact that bridges are capable of analyzing incoming
data packets on a network to determine if the bridge is able
to send the given packet to another segment of that same
network.
 ADVANTAGES OF BRIDGE
 Self configuring
 Primitive bridges are often inexpensive
 Reduce size of collision domain by microsegmentation
in non switched networks
 Transparent to protocols above the MAC layer
 Allows the introduction of management - performance
information and access control
 LANs interconnected are separate and physical
constraints such as number of stations, repeaters and
segment length don't apply
 it also helps minimize high bandwidth
DISADVANTAGES OF BRIDGE
 Does not limit the scope of broadcasts
 Does not scale to extremely large networks
 Buffering introduces store and forward delays - on
average traffic destined for bridge will be related to the
number of stations on the rest of the LAN
 Bridging of different MAC protocols introduces errors
 Because bridges do more than repeaters by viewing
MAC addresses, the extra processing makes them
slower than repeaters
 Bridges are more expensive than repeaters
 SWITCHES
 A network switch is a small hardware device that joins
multiple computers together within one local area network
(LAN).
 Operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.
 Identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains
more intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than a hub.
 Unlike hubs, network switches are capable of inspecting data
packets as they are received, determining the source and
destination device of each packet, and forwarding them
appropriately.
 By delivering messages only to the connected device
intended, a network switch conserves network bandwidth and
offers generally better performance than a hub.
 SWITCHES
 A switch is effectively a higher-performance alternative to a
hub
 hubs operate using a broadcast model and switches operate
using a virtual circuit model. When four computers are
connected to a hub, for example, and two of those
computers communicate with each other, hubs simply pass
through all network traffic to each of the four computers.
Switches, on the other hand, are capable of determining the
destination of each individual traffic element (such as an
Ethernet frame) and selectively forwarding data to the one
computer that actually needs it. By generating less network
traffic in delivering messages, a switch performs better than
a hub on busy networks.
 BRIDGE MODEM
 Identical to basic bridge functions including
dividing a network to LANs
 Capable of functioning as a modem or able to be
used as a modem instead as only a bridge.
Chapter 3: DATA
TRANSMISSION
What is Analogue Data?
 A continuously varying signal or wave.
 susceptible to interference which can change the character of the
wave.
 An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which
the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation
of some other time varying quantity
 It differs from a digital signal in that small fluctuations in the signal
are meaningful
 Analog is usually thought of in an electrical context; however,
mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also
convey analog signals.
 analogue signal can be thought of as a simulation or duplication of
one continuous time varying quantity in another, possibly different,
time varying quantity.
 What is Digital Data?
 A signal that takes on only two values, off or on,
typically represented by "0" or "1." Digital signals
require less power but (typically) more bandwidth
than analog.
 It can refer to discrete-time signals that have a
discrete number of levels, for example a sampled
and quantified analog signal, or to the continuous-
time waveform signals in a digital system,
representing a bit-stream
 What is Digital Data?
•A waveform that switches
between two voltage levels
•Represent two states of a
Boolean value (0 and 1) is
referred to as a digital
signal, even though it is an
analog voltage waveform,
since it is interpreted in
terms of only two levels.
•The clock signal is a special digital
signal
•The image shown can be considered
the waveform of a clock signal.
•The given diagram is an example of
the practical pulse and therefore we
have introduced two new terms that
are:
•Rising edge: the transition from a low
voltage (level 1 in the diagram) to a
high voltage (level 2).
•Falling edge: the transition from a high
voltage to a low one.
 What is Binary?
 Binary files are usually thought of as being a
sequence of bytes, which means the binary digits
(bits) are grouped in eights.
 Binary files typically contain bytes that are
intended to be interpreted as something other than
text characters.
 binary files can also contain images, sounds,
compressed versions of other files.
Example of Binary File
 Bit Rate n Bandwidth
 What Bit Rate?
 the number of bits that are conveyed or processed
per unit of time.
 The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second
(bit/s or bps)
 In digital communication systems, the gross
bitrate, raw bitrate, line rate or data signaling
rate is the total number of physically transferred
bits per second over a communication link,
including useful data as well as protocol overhead.
 Bit Rate n Bandwidth
 Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and
lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a filter, a
communication channel, or a signal spectrum, and is
typically measured in hertz. In case of a baseband
channel or signal, the bandwidth is equal to its upper
cutoff frequency.
 Bandwidth (computing) or digital bandwidth: a rate of
data transfer, throughput or bit rate, measured in bits
per second
 Bandwidth (signal processing) or analog bandwidth: a
measure of the width of a range of frequencies,
measured in hertz
 Bandwidth
 In computer networking and computer science, digital
bandwidth, network bandwidth or just bandwidth is a
measure of available or consumed data communication
resources expressed in bit/s or multiples of it (kbit/s, Mbit/s
etc).
 Bandwidth may refer to bandwidth capacity or available
bandwidth in bit/s, which typically means the net bit rate
or the maximum throughput of a logical or physical
communication path in a digital communication system.
The reason for this usage is that according to Hartley's law,
the maximum data rate of a physical communication link is
proportional to its bandwidth in hertz, which is sometimes
called "analog bandwidth“.
 Baud vs Bit Rate
 The baud rate of a data communications system is
the number of symbols per second transferred.
 A symbol may have more than two states, so it may
represent more than one binary bit (a binary bit
always represents exactly two states).
 Baud means "state changes of the line per second“
 modulation rate or the number of times per second
that a line changes state
 Baud Rate
 Named after J. M. Emile Baudot (1845-1903), who
was a French telegraph operator, who worked out a
five-level code (five bits per character) for telegraphs
 It was standardized as International Telegraph
Alphabet Number 2, and is commonly called Baudot
 Since 2^5 is only 32 and the uppercase letters,
numbers, and a few punctuation characters add to more
than that, Baudot uses Shift In and Shift Out characters
(analogous to how the Caps Lock key on a PC
keyboard reduces the number of keys needed by
enabling each letter key to represent two characters).
 Bit Rate
 the bit rate is the number of bits that pass a given
point in a telecommunication network in a given
amount of time, usually a second. Thus, a bit rate is
usually measured in some multiple of bits per
second - for example, kilobits, or thousands of bits
per second (Kbps). The term bit rate is a synonym
for data transfer rate (or simply data rate).
 TWISTED PAIR
 A type of cable that consists of two independently
insulated wires twisted around one another.
 The use of two wires twisted together helps to
reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction
 TWISTED PAIR
 two wires carry equal and opposite signals and the
destination detects the difference between the two.
 This is known as differential mode transmission.
 Noise sources introduce signals into the wires by
coupling of electric or magnetic fields and tend to
couple to both wires equally.
 Produces a common-mode signal which is
cancelled at the receiver when the difference signal
is taken
 TWISTED PAIR
 One pair can induce crosstalk in another and it is
additive along the length of the cable.
 Twisting the pairs counters this effect .
 The twist rate also called pitch of the twist, usually
defined in twists per meter.
 Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable - copper cable used by cable TV
companies between the community antenna and
user homes and businesses.
 Called "coaxial" because it includes one physical
channel that carries the signal surrounded (after a
layer of insulation) by another concentric physical
channel, both running along the same axis.
 The outer channel serves as a ground. Many of
these cables or pairs of coaxial tubes can be placed
in a single outer sheathing and, with repeaters, can
carry information for a great distance.
 Coaxial cable was invented in 1929 and first used
commercially in 1941
 Coaxial cable design choices affect physical size,
frequency performance, attenuation, power
handling capabilities, flexibility, strength and cost.
 The inner conductor might be solid or stranded;
stranded is more flexible.
 To get better high-frequency performance, the
inner conductor may be silver plated. Sometimes
copper-plated iron wire is used as an inner
conductor
 Fiber Optic
 A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to
transmit data. A fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of
glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting
messages modulated onto light waves. Advantages :
 have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This
means that they can carry more data. Fiber optic cables are
less susceptible than metal cables to interference.
 Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal
wires. Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for
computer data) rather than analogically.
 The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that the cables are
expensive to install. In addition, they are more fragile than
wire and are difficult to splice
 Fiber Optic
 A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system
that fiber-optics is replacing.
 The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to
transmit information down fiber lines instead of using
electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines
 Transmitter is the place of origin for information coming
on to fiber-optic lines.
 Accepts coded electronic pulse information coming from
copper wire.
 Processes and translates information into equivalently
coded light pulses.
 A light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode
(ILD) can be used for generating the light pulses.
 Fiber Optic
 SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds -
up into the gigabits
 BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
 DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further
without needing to be "refreshed" or strengthened.
 RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic
noise such as radios, motors or other nearby cables.
 MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less
to maintain.
Fiber Optic
 Terrestrial microwave
 Terrestrial microwave communication employs Earth-
based transmitters and receivers.
 The frequencies used are in the low-gigahertz range,
which limits all communications to line-of-sight.
 Microwave transmissions typically use a parabolic
antenna that produces a narrow, highly directional
signal.
 A similar antenna at the receiving site is sensitive to
signals only within a narrow focus.
 Because the transmitter and receiver are highly
focused, they must be adjusted carefully so that the
transmitted signal is aligned with the receiver
 Terrestrial microwave
 A microwave link frequently is used to transmit
signals in instances in which it would be
impractical to run cables.
 If you need to connect two networks separated by a
public road, for example, you might find that
regulations restrict you from running cables above
or below the road. In such a case, a microwave link
is an ideal solution.

 Terrestrial microwave
 Terrestrial microwave systems operate in the low-
gigahertz range, typically at 4-6 GHz and 21-23
GHz, and costs are highly variable depending on
requirements.
 Long-distance microwave systems can be quite
expensive but might be less costly than alternatives.
 When line-of-sight transmission is possible, a
microwave link is a one-time expense that can offer
greater bandwidth than a leased circuit.
Terrestrial microwave
 Satellite Microwave
 wk10_Satellite___Microwave.ppt
 DTE- Data Terminal Equipment
 Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that
converts user information into signals or reconverts received
signals.
 A DTE device communicates with the data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCE). The DTE/DCE classification was
introduced by IBM.
 A DTE is the functional unit of a data station that serves as a
data source or a data sink and provides for the data
communication control function to be performed in
accordance with link protocol.
 The data terminal equipment may be a single piece of
equipment or an interconnected subsystem of multiple pieces
of equipment that perform all the required functions necessary
to permit users to communicate. A user interacts with the
DTE (e.g. through a human-machine interface), or the DTE
may be the user.
 DCE – Data Circuit Terminating
Eq
 A Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) is a
device that sits between the data terminal equipment
(DTE) and a data transmission circuit.
 It is also called data communications equipment and
data carrier equipment.
 Performs functions such as signal conversion, coding,
and line clocking and may be a part of the DTE or
intermediate equipment.
 Interfacing equipment may be required to couple the
data terminal equipment (DTE) into a transmission
circuit or channel and from a transmission circuit or
channel into the DTE.
 Most commonly used with RS-232
 DCE – Data Circuit Terminating
Eq
 The DCE includes timing elements for providing the DTE
with any desired transmitter signal element timing and
any desired receiver signal element timing.RS-232
 The receiver signal element timing, the transmitter signal
element timing, the transmit sampling clock pulsing the
D/A converter and the receive sampling clock pulsing the
A/D converter are all controlled by different sequences of
digital values computed by the processing elements. By
generating appropriate sequences of digital values, the
processing elements can provide any desired relationship
between the different clocks to satisfy a transmit signal
element timing
 QUIZ
1. Describe briefly the differences between DTE n
DCE. (4M)
2. What is abbreviation of UTP stand for? (2M)
3. Describe 3 characteristics of Fiber Optic (3M)

4. What is Baud rate, Bit rate and Bandwidth.(3M)

 CHAPTER 4: NETWORK SYSTEM
COMMUNICATION
4.1 ETHERNET
 Ethernet is the most widely-installed local area network ( LAN)
technology.
 Specified in a standard, IEEE 802.3, Ethernet was originally
developed by Xerox from an earlier specification called Alohanet
(for the Palo Alto Research Center Aloha network) and then
developed further by Xerox, DEC, and Intel.
 An Ethernet LAN typically uses coaxial cable or special grades of
twisted pair wires.
 Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs. T
 The most commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-
T and provide transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps. Devices are
connected to the cable and compete for access using a Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD ) protocol.
 CHAPTER 4: NETWORK SYSTEM
COMMUNICATION

 The Preamble consists of seven bytes all of the form 10101010, and is used by the receiver to
allow it to establish bit synchronisation (there is no clocking information on the Ether when
nothing is being sent).
 The Start frame delimiter is a single byte, 10101011, which is a frame flag, indicating the
start of a frame.
 The MAC addresses used in 802.3 are always 48 bits long, although older versions of
Ethernet used 16 bits. Individual addresses have a most significant bit of 0, multicast
addresses a most significant bit of 1. An address of 48 �1s � is a broadcast to all stations on
the local network. An interesting feature is that individual addresses may be local or global,
with, respectively, a second most significant bit of 0 or 1. Local addresses have no
significance except on the local Ethernet installation, but global addresses are unique: every
system with an Ethernet interface has a unique global address hardwired into that interface.
 The Length/EtherType field indicates the number of bytes of data in the frame , and can be
anything from 0 to 1500 bytes. Frames must be at least 64 bytes long, not including the
preamble, so, if the data field is shorter than 46 bytes .
 Finally the Checksum field uses a CRC-32 polynomial code
 4.2 OSI PROTOCOL

 Senibina ~ mendefinisikan elemen penting untuk komunikasi

data di antara peranti.

 Protokol ~ satu set undang-undang yang meliputi

komunikasi data. Ia merupakan perjanjian di antara pihak
yang berkomunikasi berkenaan bagaimana komunikasi data
boleh dilakukan. Ia membenarkan sistem komputer yang
berbeza berkomunikasi dengan baik dan mengawal
bagaimana komputer bertukar maklumat melalui media
rangkaian.
 4.2 OSI PROTOCOL

• Ia merupakan “blueprint” untuk keseluruhan rangkaian,

termasuklah falsafah rekabentuk dan struktur logikal di antara
perkakasan rangkaian yang mempengaruhi bahan proses
(throughput), penggunaan CPU (utilization), perolehan kos
(cost recovery), kebolehpercayaan (reliability) dan keserasian
(compatibility).

• Senibina rangkaian atau senibina komunikasi juga dikenali

sebagai model rujukan
 WHY USE PROTOCOL??

Electrical volt
• Terdapat terlalu banyak age switching

aspek yang terlibat Format data

a
Error control
man
dalam komunikasi a l
Sign r dulu
ta
Ber
ele apa la
han
rangkaian, dan banyak m el
c t ri
cal ju han
vol tar
tar Flow control encription t a
kepelbagaian pula. Ha
n
r es s i n g
g e

add compression
M physical port
od
dia
lo g
• Oleh itu, ia perlu
kerangka untuk melihat
komponen2 secara
sistematik.
 •Senibina rangkaian @ model rujukan menempatkan
komponen2 rangkaian yg terlibat dalam bentuk lapisan.
•Setiap lapisan menakrifkan perkhidmatan bagi perisian atau
perkakasan

Electrical volt
age switching Aplikasi
Format data
ta rm
e l
Presentation
M physical port Han
od
dia
log Flow control Session
a l man
a
e s s in g Transport
Si g n r d u l u ad d
r
h an
ta
encription
Ber
Network
compression

r ol
e le a p a l a
ctri
cal ju han
Data Link
t
con v ol tar
Err
o r t ag e Physical
 CONCEPT OF OSI LAYER
• Mengurangkan kesulitan merekabentuk senibina
komunikasi, kebanyakan rangkaian disusun sbg
beberapa siri lapisan @ peringkat, di mana setiap
satu dibangunkan di atasnya.
• Bilangan, nama, kandungan dan fungsi setiap lapisan
berbeza dari satu rangkaian dgn rangkaian yg lain.
• Bagaimanapun, dalam semua rangkaian, matlamat
setiap lapisan adalah menawarkan perkhidmatan
kepada lapisan di atasnya.
 Host 1

Layer 6 Setiap lapisan dibangunkan

di atas lapisan bawahnya.
Kebanyakan Layer 5
rangkaian
disusun Layer 4
dalam Bilangan lapisan berbeza di antara rangkaian.
beberapa siri Layer 3
lapisan @
peringkat. Layer 2 Nama, fungsi dan kandungan setiap lapisan
Layer 1 berbeza di antara rangkaian

Tujuan setiap lapisan adalah menawarkan

Perkhidmatan kpd lapisan di atasnya.
 OSI MODEL
• Dibangunkan oleh ISO yang meliputi semua aspek
komunikasi rangkaian.
• Ia dinamakan Open System Interconnections (OSI)
Reference Model kerana ia berhubung dengan sistem
terbuka yang tidak berasaskan pembekal.
• Sistem terbuka (open system) ~ satu model yg
membenarkan dua sistem berbeza berkomunikasi
tanpa mengira bentuk senibina.
• Sistem tertutup (closed system) ~ protokol pembekal
yg spesifik yg tidak membenarkan komunikasi di
antara sistem yg tidak sama.
 OSI MODEL
• Model OSI adalah rangka lapisan utk rekabentuk
sistem rangkaian yg membenarkan komunikasi untuk
semua jenis sistem komputer.
• Ia mengandungi skema komunikasi utk fungsi2
komunikasi yang disusun dalam tujuh (7) lapisan.
 OSI MODEL
 Model OSI dibangunkan ke atas 7 lapisan:
 Fizikal (Physical layer) ~ lapisan 1
 Pautan data (Data link layer) ~ Lapisan 2
 Rangkaian (Network layer) ~Lapisan 3
 Pengangkutan (Transport layer ) ~ Lapisan 4
 Sessi (Session layer) ~ Lapisan 5
 Persembahan (Presentation layer) ~ Lapisan 6
 Aplikasi (Application layer) ~ Lapisan 7

Please Do Not Touch Steve’s Pet Alligator

Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, Application
 OSI

 Lapisan sokongan pengguna (5,6,7)

 Membenarkan operasi di antara sistem perisian yg tidak sama.
 Lapisan pengangkutan (4)
 Memastikan transmisi data yg boleh dipercayai dari satu titik-ke-titik.
 (UPPER LAYER)

 Lapisan sokongan rangkaian (1,2,3)

 Berhubung dgn aspek fizikal utk menggerakkan data dari satu peranti
ke peranti lain (cth: spesifikasi elektrikal, hubungan fizikal,
pengalamatan fizikal)
 (LOWER LAYER)
 OSI
• Lapisan Fizikal
• Penghantaran bit data melalui media
• Menakrifkan spesifikasi mekanikal dan elektrikal
• Lapisan Pautan Data
• Menyusun bit dlm bentuk frame
• Penghantaran nod-ke-nod
• Lapisan Rangkaian
• Menggerakkan paket dari sumber ke destinasi
• Menyediakan antara rangkaian (routing, switching,
addressing)
 OSI
• Lapisan pengangkutan
• Menyediakan penghantaran mesej yg dipercayai dari
penghujung-ke-penghujung dan pembetulan ralat.
• Provide reliable end-to-end message delivery and error
recovery.
• Lapisan sesi
• Memulakan, mengekalkan dan memutuskan perhubungan.
• Lapisan persembahan
• Menterjemahkan, menyulitkan dan memampatkan data
• Lapisan Aplikasi
• Membenarkan capaian ke atas sumber2 rangkaian.
 OSI
Lapisan 7: Aplikasi   Lapisan 7: Aplikasi
~ menggunakan perkhidmatan pemindahan fail yg disediakan ~ Menerima fail dan bersedia untuk digunakan oleh
seperti FTAM, FTP untuk mencapai rangkaian. pengguna.

Lapisan 6: Persembahan   Lapisan 6: Persembahan

~ data dr lapisan aplikasi di format/menterjemah data dan
melakukan pengenkripan dan mampatan (jika ada).
Lapisan 5: Sesi  
~ Apabila data diterima drp lapisan persembahan, ia akan
membuka sesi dialog dgn terminal B bagaimana data akan
dipindahkan.
Lapisan 4: Pengangkutan  
~ memecahkan data dalam bentuk segmen dan memasukkan
nombor urutan dan diberikan kepada lapisan rangkaian.
~ menformat data -bentuk yg boleh difahami oleh
aplikasi -melakukan decryption dan decompression
(jika ada)
Lapisan 5: Sesi
~ mengesahkan bahawa data telah diterima dengan
sempurna atau tidak
 
Lapisan 4: Pengangkutan
~ mengumpulkan segmen2 yang diterima untuk
membentuk data unit serta memeriksa ralat.

Lapisan 3: Rangkaian <header>   Lapisan 3: Rangkaian

~ Alamat logikal ditambah dan ia menentukan laluan yang ~ Menentukan sama ada data yg diterima adalah
akan diambil untuk menghantar data ke terminal B. untuknya.

Lapisan 2: Pautan Data   Lapisan 2: Pautan data

~ Alamat fizikal pengirim dan penerima ditambah disertakan ~ Menerima data drpd lapisan fizikal dan memeriksa
dengan trailer utk kawalan ralat. ralat.

Lapisan 1: Fizikal   Lapisan 1: Fizikal

Menukarkan bit ke dalam bentuk isyarat supaya penghantaran ~ Menukarkan isyarat ke dalam bentuk bit data.
melalui media fizikal dapat dilakukan.
 4.3 TCP/IP
 TCP and IP were developed by a Department of Defense (DOD) research
project to connect a number different networks designed by different
vendors into a network of networks (the "Internet").
 It was initially successful because it delivered a few basic services that
everyone needs (file transfer, electronic mail, remote logon) across a very
large number of client and server systems.
 Several computers in a small department can use TCP/IP (along with other
protocols) on a single LAN.
 The IP component provides routing from the department to the enterprise
network, then to regional networks, and finally to the global Internet.
 On the battlefield a communications network will sustain damage, so the
DOD designed TCP/IP to be robust and automatically recover from any
node or phone line failure.
 This design allows the construction of very large networks with less central
management. However, because of the automatic recovery, network
problems can go undiagnosed and uncorrected for long periods of time.
 4.3 TCP/IP
 IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from
node to node. IP forwards each packet based on a four
byte destination address (the IP number). The Internet
authorities assign ranges of numbers to different
organizations. The organizations assign groups of their
numbers to departments. IP operates on gateway
machines that move data from department to
organization to region and then around the world.
 TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery
of data from client to server. Data can be lost in the
intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect
errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until
the data is correctly and completely received.
TCP/IP LAYER
 INTERNET ADDRESS
 An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical
identification (logical address ) that is assigned to devices
participating in a computer network.
 IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they are
usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as
208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6).
 The role of the IP address has been characterized as
follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address
indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."
 In the original Internet routing scheme developed in the 1970s, sites
were assigned addresses from one of three classes: Class A, Class B
and Class C.
 The address classes differ in size and number. Class A addresses are
the largest, but there are few of them. Class Cs are the smallest, but
they are numerous. Classes D and E are also defined, but not used
in normal operation.
 Internet routing used to work like this: A router receiving an IP
packet extracted its Destination Address, which was classified
(literally) by examining its first one to four bits. Once the address's
class had been determined, it was broken down into network and
host bits. Routers ignored the host bits, and only needed to match
the network bits to find a route to the network. Once a packet
reached its target network, its host field was examined for final
delivery.
 Class A - 0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
First bit 0; 7 network bits; 24 host bits
Initial byte: 0 - 127
126 Class As exist (0 and 127 are reserved)
16,777,214 hosts on each Class A
 Class B - 10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
First two bits 10; 14 network bits; 16 host bits
Initial byte: 128 - 191
16,384 Class Bs exist
65,532 hosts on each Class B
 Class C - 110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh
First three bits 110; 21 network bits; 8 host bits
Initial byte: 192 - 223
2,097,152 Class Cs exist
254 hosts on each Class C
 Class D - 1110mmmm mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmm
mmmmmmmm
First four bits 1110; 28 multicast address bits
Initial byte: 224 - 247
Class Ds are multicast addresses
CLASS FORMAT
 SUBNET MASK
 32-bit value
 Generally used to subdivide (subnet) a given IP class
network into smaller (sub)networks
 Netmask determines which portion of an IP address is the
network address and which is the host address
 An IP address bit is a network address bit if the corresponding
netmask bit is 1
 An IP address bit is a host address bit if the corresponding
netmask bit is 0
 "Natural netmask" has all netid bit locations = 1 and all
hostid bit locations = 0
(e.g., 255.0.0.0, 255.255.0.0, and 255.255.255.0 for class A,
B, and C networks, respectively)
DNS – DOMAIN NAME
SYSTEM
 The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical naming system
for computers, services, or any resource participating in the Internet.
 It translates domain names meaningful to humans into the numerical
(binary) identifiers associated with networking equipment for the
purpose of locating and addressing these devices world-wide.
 An often used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it
serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by translating human-
friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example,
www.example.com translates to 208.77.188.166.
 The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain names
to groups of Internet users in a meaningful way, independent of each
user's physical location.
 Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP addresses such
as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or 2001:db8:1f70::999:de8:7648:6e8
(IPv6). People take advantage of this when they recite meaningful
URLs and e-mail addresses without having to know how the machine
will actually locate them
 FTP – FILE TRANSFER
PROTOCOL
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a network protocol used to
transfer data from one computer to another through a network
such as the Internet.
 FTP is a file transfer protocol for exchanging and
manipulating files over a TCP computer network. An FTP
client may connect to an FTP server to manipulate files on
that server.
 The most common use for FTP is to download files from the
Internet. 
 When downloading a file from the Internet you're actually
transferring the file to your computer from another computer
over the Internet.  This is why the T (transfer) is in FTP. You
may not know where the computer is that the file is coming
from but you most likely know it's URL or Internet address.
 HTTP??
 HTTP, short for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol, is the
protocol for transferring hypertext documents that
makes the World Wide Web possible.
 A standard web address (such as
http://www.yahoo.com/) is called a URL; the prefix
(http in the example) indicates its protocol.
 In order to fetch a web page for you, your web browser
must "talk" to a web server somewhere else. When web
browsers talk to web servers, they speak a language
known as HTTP, which stands for Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol. This language is actually very simple and
understandable and is not difficult for the human eye to
follow.
 HTTP
 GET / HTTP/1.0
 Host: www.boutell.com
 And the server replies:
 HTTP/1.0 200 OK
 Content-Type: text/html
 <head> <title>Welcome to Boutell.Com, Inc.!
</title> </head> <body> The rest of Boutell.Com's
home page appears here </body>
 HTTP LAGII..
 The first line of the browser's request, GET / HTTP/1.0, indicates that the
browser wants to see the home page of the site, and that the browser is
using version 1.0 of the HTTP protocol.
 The second line, Host: www.boutell.com, indicates the website that the
browser is asking for. This is required because many websites may share
the same IP address on the Internet and be hosted by a single computer.
The Host: line was added a few years after the original release of HTTP
1.0 in order to accommodate this.
 The first line of the server's reply, HTTP/1.0 200 OK, indicates that the
server is also speaking version 1.0 of the HTTP protocol, and that the
request was successful.
 If the page the browser asked for did not exist, the response would read
HTTP/1.0 404 Not Found.
 The second line of the server's reply, Content-Type: text/html, tells the
browser that the object it is about to receive is a web page. This is how the
browser knows what to do with the response from the server. If this line
were Content-Type: image/jpg, the browser would know to expect a PNG
image file rather than a web page, and would display it accordingly.
POP – POST OFFICE
PROTOCOL
 A simple protocol to connect, retrieve and check
the email.
 Define as RFC 1939.
 POP allows user to log in to account, verify the
user names and passwords, retrieve the new and
old email, alerting the user of new coming message
and etc.
 POP – POST OFFICE
PROTOCOL
 The Purpose of POP, the Post Office Protocol
 If somebody sends you an email it usually cannot be delivered directly to your
computer. The message has to be stored somewhere, though. It has to be stored in
a place where you can pick it up easily. Your ISP (Internet Service Provider) is
online 24 hours on 7 days of the week and will do that job. It receives the message
for you and keeps it until you download it.
 Let's suppose your email address is look@me.com. As your ISP's mail server
receives email from the internet it will look at each message and if it finds one
addressed to look@me.com that message will be filed to a folder reserved for your
mail.
 This folder is where the message is kept until either you retrieve it or one of your
ISP's administrators finds your account has been filled with spam and decides to
delete all the mail in it (no, this won't happen but it can very well happen that you
go past your limit of space available for incoming messages and cannot receive
any more).
 Now, POP, the Post Office Protocol (as defined in RFC 1939) is what allows you
to retrieve mail from your ISP. This is also about all the Post Office Protocol is
good for.
 POP – POST OFFICE
PROTOCOL
 What the Post Office Protocol Allows You to Do
 Like it seems everything on the internet, mail retrieval is a client-
server application. The Post Office Protocol defines how your email
client should talk to the POP server. The POP is a very simple
protocol.
Things that can be done via the POP include:
 Retrieve mail from an ISP and delete it on the server.
 Retrieve mail from an ISP but not delete it on the server.
 Ask whether new mail has arrived but not retrieve it.
 Peek at a few lines of a message to see whether it is worth
retrieving.
 If you leave all your mail on the server, it will pile up there and
eventually lead to a full mailbox. When your mailbox is full,
nobody will be able to send you any email before you haven't
cleaned up.
 HOW POP WORKS??
 The Post Office Protocol (POP) used to retrieve mail from a remote server is a
very simple protocol. It defines the basic functionality in a straight forward
manner and is easy to implement. Of course, it is also easy to understand. Let's
find out what happens behind the scenes when your email program fetches mail
in a POP account. First, it needs to connect to the server.
 Hi, It's Me
 Usually the POP server listens to port 110 for incoming connections. Upon
connection from a POP client (your email program) it will hopefully respond
with +OK pop.philo.org ready or something similar. The +OK indicates that
everything is — OK. Its negative equivalent is -ERR, which means something
has gone wrong. Maybe your email client has already shown you one of these
negative server replies.
 Now that the server has greeted us, we need to log on using our username (let's
suppose the user name is "platoon"; what the server says is printed in italics):
 +OK pop.philo.org ready
USER platoon
 HOW POP WORKS cont..
 Since a user with this name does exist, the POP server responds with
+OK . Were there no such user at the server, it would of course make
us panic with -ERR user unknown.
 To make the authentication complete we also need to give our
password. This is done with the "pass" command:
 +OK send your password
pass noplato
 If we type the password correctly, the server responds with +OK great
password or whatever the programmer of the POP server had in mind.
The important part again is the +OK. Unfortunately, passwords can
also be wrong. The server notes this with a dry -ERR username and
password don't match (as if you'd use your user name as your
password).
 If everything went okay, though, we are connected to the server and it
knows who we are, thus we're ready to peek the newly arrived mail.
CHAPTER 5 :NETWORKING
MEDIA
CHAPTER 5: NETWORKING
MEDIA
 Copper media
 Optical media
 Wireless media
Electricity Basics
The basic unit of all matter is an atom.
 Nucleus – center part of the atom (protons

and neutrons)

 Protons – particles that have positive charge

 Neutrons – particles that have no charge

(neutral)

 Electrons – particles that have negative

charge and orbit the nucleus
Electricity Basics
 Creating Stable Atoms
 Electrons in certain atoms can be pulled free from the atom
and made to flow – this is electricity (a free flow of
electrons).

 Static Electricity
 Loosened electrons that stay in one place, without moving
and with a negative charge.
 Can create electrostatic discharge, which can create serious
problems for computers.
Types of Electrical Materials
 Insulators
 Electrons flow poorly
 Plastic, paper, rubber, dry wood, air, and glass

 Conductors
 Electrons flow well
 Copper, silver, gold, solder, water with ions, humans

 Semiconductors
 Electrons flow can be controlled precisely
 Carbon, germanium, gallium arsenide, silicon
Measuring Electricity
 Voltage
 Resistance and impedance
 Current
 Alternating current
 Direct current
 Circuits
 Cable specification and termination
Current Flow

A 6-volt
flashlight
uses a
simple
circuit.
 Electrical Grounds
Surge
suppressors,
uninterruptible
power supplies,
and wall outlets
all connect to a
transformer and
to the earth
ground.
Copper Media
Cable Specifications
 Cable Specifications

• 10BASE5
– speed of transmission at 10 Mbps
– type of transmission is baseband
– 5 represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to travel for
approximately 500 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of the
receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received.
– often referred to as Thicknet
 Cable Specifications

• 10BASE2
– speed of transmission at 10 Mbps
– type of transmission is baseband
– The 2, in 10BASE2, represents the capability of the cable to allow the signal to
travel for approximately 200 meters, before attenuation could disrupt the ability of
the receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received. 10BASE2 is often
referred to as Thinnet.
 Cable Specifications

• 10BASE-T
– speed of transmission at 10 Mbps
– type of transmission is baseband, or digitally interpreted
– T stands for twisted pair
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable consists of a
hollow outer cylindrical
conductor that surrounds a
single inner wire made of
two conducting elements.
 It can be run without as
many boosts from repeaters,
for longer distances between
network nodes than
either STP or UTP cable.
Coaxial Cable
Shielded Copper Cable
 Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques
of shielding, cancellation, and twisting of wires.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire
medium used in a variety of networks. Each of the 8
individual copper wires in the UTP cable is covered by
insulating material.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Straight-through Cross-over Rollover

www.cisco.com/warp/ public/701/14.html
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Hub or Switch Host or Router

• The cable that

connects from
the switch port
to the computer
NIC port is
called a straight-
through cable.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Hub or Switch Hub or Switch

• The cable that

connects from one
switch port to another
switch port is called a
crossover cable.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• The cable that connects the RJ-45 adapter on the com

port of the computer to the console port of the router or
switch is called a rollover cable.
UTP Rollover Cable
Optical Media
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Electromagnetic Energy
 Radio
 Microwaves
 Radar
 Visible light
 X-rays
 Gamma rays
 If all the types of electromagnetic waves are arranged
in order from the longest wavelength down to the
shortest wavelength, a continuum called the
electromagnetic spectrum is created.
Ray Model of Light
 When electromagnetic waves travel out from a source, they
travel in straight lines called rays.
 Light travels at different slower speeds through materials like
air, water, and glass.
 When a light ray called the incident ray, crosses the boundary
from one material to another, some of the light energy in the
ray will be reflected back.
Reflection
 When a ray of light (the incident
ray) strikes the shiny surface of a
flat piece of glass, some of the
light energy in the ray is
reflected.
 The angle between the incident
ray and a line perpendicular to
the surface of the glass at the
point where the incident ray
strikes the glass is called the
angle of incidence.
Refraction
 When a light strikes the interface
between two transparent materials, the
light divides into two parts.
 Part of the light ray is reflected back
into the first substance, with the angle
of reflection equaling the angle of
incidence.
 The remaining energy in the light ray
crosses the interface and enters into
the second substance.
Total Internal Reflection
 A light ray that is being
turned on and off to send
data (1s and 0s) into an
optical fiber must stay
inside the fiber until it
reaches the far end.
Laws of Reflection
 The following two conditions must be met for the light
rays in a fiber to be reflected back into the fiber
without any loss due to refraction:
 The core of the optical fiber has to have a larger index of
refraction than the material that surrounds it (the
cladding).
 The angle of incidence of the light ray is greater than the
critical angle for the core and its cladding.
Laws of Reflection
Laws of Reflection

2 2
NA = sin Ø = n2  n1

n = refraction index
Ø = angle of light
Multimode Fiber
 If the diameter of the core of
the fiber is large enough so
that there are many paths
that light can take through
the fiber, the fiber is called
“multimode” fiber.
 Single-mode fiber has a
much smaller core that only
allows light rays to travel
along one mode inside the
fiber.
 Single-Mode Fiber
 The major difference between
multimode and single-mode
fiber is that single-mode allows
only one mode of light to
propagate through the smaller,
fiber-optic core.
 Single-mode fiber is capable of
higher rates of data transmission
and greater cable run distances
than multimode fiber.
 Single-mode fiber can carry
LAN data up to 3000 meters.
Multimode is only capable of
carrying up to 2000 meters.
Other Optical Components
 Optical fiber links use light to send data.
 A transmitter is needed to convert the electricity to
light and at the other end of the fiber convert the
light back to electricity.
Other Optical Components (cont.)

 The semiconductor devices that are usually used as

receivers with fiber-optic links are called p-intrinsic-
n diodes (PIN photodiodes).
 Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the
fibers can be connected to the ports on the transmitter
and receiver.
Signals and Noise in Optical Fibers

 The farther a light signal travels through a fiber, the more the
signal loses strength. This attenuation is due to several factors
involving the nature of fiber itself.
 Scattering of light in a fiber is caused by microscopic non-uniformity
(distortions) in the fiber that reflects and scatters some of the light
energy.
 Absorption makes the light signal a little dimmer.
 Another factor that causes attenuation of the light signal is
manufacturing irregularities or roughness in the core-to-cladding
boundary.

 Graded index multimode fiber is designed to compensate for

the different distances the various modes of light have to travel
in the large diameter core.
Installation, Care, and Testing of Optical Fiber

 If the fiber is stretched or

curved too tightly, it can
cause tiny cracks in the core
that will scatter the light
rays.

 Bending the fiber in too

tight a curve can change the
incident angle of light rays
striking the core-to-cladding
boundary.
Installation, Care, and Testing of Optical Fiber
(cont.)
 Interducting protects the
fiber, makes it easier to pull,
and ensures that the bending
radius (curve limit) of the
fiber is not exceeded.

 Two of the most important

testing instruments are
Optical Loss Meters and
Optical Time Domain
Reflectometers (OTDRs).
Wireless Media
 WLAN Organizations and Standards
 IEEE is the prime issuer of standards for wireless networks.
 The standards have been created within the framework of the regulations
created by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
 802.11 standard is Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
 DSSS applies to wireless devices operating within a 1 to 2 Mbps range.
 802.11b may also be called Wi-Fi™ or high-speed wireless and refers to DSSS
systems that operate at 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps.
 The majority of 802.11b devices still fail to match the 11 Mbps throughput and
generally function in the 2 to 4 Mbps range.
 802.11a covers WLAN devices operating in the 5 GHZ transmission band.
 802.11a is capable of supplying data throughput of 54 Mbps and with proprietary
technology known as "rate doubling" has achieved 108 Mbps.
 In production networks, a more standard rating is 20-26 Mbps.
 802.11g provides the same throughout as 802.11a but with backwards
compatibility for 802.11b devices.
Wireless Devices and Topologies
 An access point (AP) is commonly
installed to act as a central hub for
the WLAN "infrastructure mode".
 The AP is hard wired to the cabled
LAN to provide Internet access and
connectivity to the wired network.
 APs are equipped with antennae
and provide wireless connectivity
over a specified area referred to as a
cell.
 Most commonly, the range will be
from 91.44 to 152.4 meters (300 to
500 feet).
Access Points
 To service larger areas,
multiple access points may
be installed with a degree of
overlap.
 A 20-30% overlap is
desirable.
 When a client is activated
within the WLAN, it will
start "listening" for a
compatible device with
which to "associate".
 This is referred to as
"scanning" and may be
active or passive.
How WLANs Communicate
 After establishing
connectivity to the WLAN,
a node will pass frames
similarly to any other 802
network.
 WLANs do not use a
standard 802.3 frame.
 WLANs use CSMA/CD
 When a source node sends a
packet, the receiving node
returns a positive
acknowledgment (ACK).
Authentication and Association
 IEEE 802.11 lists two types of authentication
processes.
 Open system – only the SSID must match
 Shared key – requires WEP (Wireless Equivalency
Protocol) encryption.
 Association permits a client to use the services of the
AP to transfer data.
Radio Wave and Microwave Spectrums

 Computers send data

signals electronically.
Radio transmitters convert
these electrical signals to
radio waves.
 Changing electric currents
in the antenna
of a transmitter generates
the radio waves.
Signals and Noise on a WLAN
 The most obvious source of a signal problem is the
transmitting station and antenna type.
 Leakage from a microwave of as little as one watt
into the RF spectrum can cause major network
disruption.
 Fog or high moisture conditions can affect wireless
networks.
 Lightning can also charge the atmosphere and alter
the path of a transmitted signal.
Wireless Security
 VPN - Virtual Private Networking
 EAP-MD5 Challenge - Extensible Authentication
Protocol
 LEAP (Cisco) - Lightweight Extensible
Authentication Protocol
 User authentication
 Encryption
 Data authentication
FIBER OPTIC TERMINATION
PROCESS
Precautions
 Always wear your safety glasses. Glass fiber pieces
are very sharp and dangerous
 Prevent epoxy/adhesive contact with skin or eyes
 Promptly dispose glass fiber pieces into fiber
disposal bottle or on a loop of tape
 Never directly look into a fiber. The invisible laser
light can damage your eyes
 FIBER OPTIC TERMINATION
PROCESS
 Components of a Corning’s field-installable SC
connector (for 3mm jacketed cable)
 Step 1: Fiber Cable Preparation

 Slide the 3mm strain relief boot onto the cable end to be terminated

 Per connector manufacturer’s instruction, use jacket stripper (2.0mm hole)

to remove fiber jacket to specified length and expose the aramid yarn. (the
Kevlar)
 Trim the aramid yarn to specified length with scissors according to the
spec.

 Fiber jacket and aramid yarn stripped to specified length per connector
manufacturer’s spec
Step 1
 Fiber Optic Cable Jacket Strippers

 Aramid Yarn Cutter

Step 1
 Fold the aramid yarn back and slide the crimp ring
onto the cable, keep folding the aramid yarn back
with the crimp ring.

 Use a permanent marker to mark specified length

from end of the jacket per manufacturer’s spec on
fiber tight buffer.
Step 1
 Strip the buffer in 5mm increments up to the mark
with your preferred buffer and coating stripper.

 Strip the buffer with a No-Nik 200um fiber stripper

Step 1
 Clean the stripped fiber with a link-free wipe
soaked in isopropyl alcohol and put it aside for
later use. (Be careful not to contaminate the
cleaned fiber!)
Step 2: Epoxy/Adhesive Preparation
 Here we use Tra-Con BAF253 Bipax package as the epoxy
sample, please follow your epoxy manufacturer’s epoxy
preparation procedure.
 Open the divider of the Bipax package, and roll the epoxy
package on a flat surface with the epoxy mixer to mix the
epoxy. When the epoxy changes to a consistent color
throughout, the epoxy is ready.

 Open the divider of the Bipax epoxy package. Use Epoxy

mixer to mix the package.
Step 2
 Remove the plunger from the 3-cc epoxy syringe, cut one
corner of the Bipax epoxy package, and pour the epoxy into the
syringe. Replace the plunger back into the syringe.
  Use an inexpensive regular scissors to cut the package. DO

NOT use the aramid yarn cutter! The aramid yarn cutter will
be ruined if contaminated by epoxy.
  Try not to trap air in the syringe when pouring the epoxy, air

bubbles can cause voids during epoxy curing.

 Pour into syringe- 3cc Epoxy Syringe

 Hold syringe vertically with the needle up. Let the
epoxy run to the bottom. Slowly move the plunger
up, forcing out the air.
 Wipe the epoxy that squirts out of the needle with a
wipe.
 Step 3: Inject Epoxy/Adhesive into
Connector Ferrule
 Take a connector, remove and throw away the cap from the rear of the
assembly since you won’t need it any more.
 Remove the dust cap from the connector ferrule (front of the assembly)
and keep it.  You will need it to protect the finished connector.
 Hold the connector with ferrule pointed up; insert the syringe into the
connector guiding tube until it stops in the connector.
 Slowly push the plunger to inject epoxy into the connector body, stop once
you see epoxy bead appears at the tip of the ferrule, and remove the
syringe.
Step 4: Insert Fiber into
Connector
 Slide the fiber into the connector all the way back
to the jacket. As you feed the fiber into the
connector, rotate the connector back and forth so
epoxy gets spread all around the fiber and keeps the
fiber to the center of the hole in the ferrule.
Step 5: Crimp Connector
 Slide the crimp ring back down the cable jacket, away from
the connector, to free the aramid yarn. Use tweezers to spread
the aramid yarn evenly around the back of the connector
body.
 Slide the crimp ring back towards the connector over the
aramid yarn until it stops against the wall of the crimp body.
 Place the connector
assembly into your crimper
tool hex, make sure the
cable jacket is under the
crimp ring, and squeeze the
crimper tool’s handles shut
to crimp the connector.
Remove the connector from
the crimper tool.
 Slide 3mm strain relief boot over the crimp ring.
The connector is now ready for next step.
HOW TO CONNECT P2P
NETWORK
HOW TO ADD NIC/NETWORK
ADAPTER
CONFIGURE THE TCP/IP
PROTOCOL
IP ADDRESS
Connect to A Workgroup
TAKE HOME TEST
 CHAPTER II : PROTOCOLS
 A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network
devices.
 a convention standard that controls or enables the connection, communication, and data
transfer between computing endpoints
 In its simplest form, a protocol can be defined as the rules governing the syntax, semantics,
and synchronization of communication. Protocols may be implemented by hardware,
software, or a combination of the two. At the lowest level, a protocol defines the behaviour of
a hardware connection.
 Most of the Internet's communication protocols are described in the RFC(Request For
Comment) data of the Internet Engineering Task Force (or IETF).
 Protocols for computer networking all generally use packet switching techniques to send and
receive messages in the form of packets.
 Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with
each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent
and received.
 Some protocols also support message acknowledgement and data compression designed for
reliable and/or high-performance network communication.
 Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for
specific purposes and environments.
 Monolithic Protocol: a computer system
architecture where processing, data and the user
interface all reside on the same system