Hormone

Hormone
• A hormone (from Greek όρμή - "to set in motion") is a chemical
 messenger that carries a signal from one cell (or group of cells) to
another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones (including plants).
• The function of hormones is to carry information to the target cells; the
action of hormones is determined by the pattern of secretion and
response of the receiving tissue - the signal transduction response.
• The best-known animal hormones are those produced by 
endocrine glands of vertebrate animals, but hormones are produced by
nearly every organ system and tissuetype in a multicellular organism.
• Endocrine hormone molecules are secreted (released) directly into the 
bloodstream, while exocrine hormones (or ectohormones) are secreted
directly into a duct, and from the duct they either flow into the
bloodstream or they flow from cell to cell by diffusion in a process known
as paracrine signalling.
 Hormonal signaling across this hierarchy involves the
following:
• Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue.
• Storage and secretion of the hormone.
• Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s).
• Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane
 or intracellular receptor protein.
• Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a 
signal transduction process. This then leads to a cellular
response. The reaction of the target cells may then be
recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to
a down-regulation in hormone production. This is an example
of a homeostatic negative feedback loop.
• Degradation of the hormone.
 Interactions with receptors

• Most hormones initiate a cellular response by initially combining with

either a specific intracellular or cell membrane associated receptor
 protein. A cell may have several different receptors that recognize the
same hormone and activate different signal transduction pathways, or
alternatively different hormones and their receptors may invoke the same
biochemical pathway.
• For many hormones, including most protein hormones, the receptor is
membrane associated and embedded in the plasma membrane at the
surface of the cell. The interaction of hormone and receptor typically
triggers a cascade of secondary effects within the cytoplasm of the cell,
often involving phosphorylation or dephosphorylation of various other
cytoplasmic proteins, changes in ion channel permeability, or increased
concentrations of intracellular molecules that may act as 
secondary messengers(e.g. cyclic AMP). Some protein hormones also
interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by
an intracrine mechanism.
Hormone-receptor complex concentrations are
effectively determined by three factors:
• The number of hormone molecules available
for complex formation
• The number of receptor molecules available
for complex formation and
• The binding affinity between hormone and
receptor.
Kinds of Hormones
 Women Hormones
• Men have higher levels of testosterone that cause
muscles to adapt to weight training by growing larger
as well as stronger. Women’s hormone levels prevent
muscles from getting overly large. Rather, lean muscle
mass will increase while staying relatively small and
compact, creating a leaner appearance at skin level.
• Hormone replacement has become a popular option
for women undergoing menopause.
Female hormones like estrogen are replaced using
skin patches, topical creams, and injections.
 Male Hormones
• These intersex individuals, along with physically
normal females who identify as male transsexuals,
can benefit from male hormone replacement
therapy to attain their desired sexual identity, that of
a male.
• One of the most important tests is a prostate-
specific antigen (PSA) level to check for the presence
of prostate cancer,
because male hormone supplementation could
worsen prostate cancer.
 Adrenal Hormones
• Adrenal hormones influence and regulate a wide variety of
body functions, including metabolism, inflammatory reactions,
blood pressure, and sex characteristics. Adrenal hormones are
typically divided into those that are produced by the
outer adrenal gland, or adrenal cortex, and those that are
produced by the adrenal medulla, or inner region of
the adrenal gland.
• When someone is constantly in the fight, flight or freeze mode,
the adrenal glands may become exhausted. Many medical
doctors look only for extreme adrenal hormone problems and
may resist ordering tests for low-level symptoms.
 Estrogen Hormones
• When no estrogen is present in the nucleus of a cell,
an estrogen receptor remains inactive. As soon as
an estrogen hormone enter the cell's nucleus, it binds to
the estrogen receptor. The receptor changes shape when
the hormone is bound to it, and becomes known as
an estrogen-receptor complex.
• The risk of breast cancer becomes more important the longer
the woman continues to receive hormone replacement
therapy. Taking estrogen alone, in the absence of
progesterone, can dramatically increase a woman's risk for
endometrial or uterine cancer.
 Growth Hormones
• When research linked the injections to an increased risk of
developing Creutzfeld-Jakob disease years after the shots were
administered, its use was discontinued in favor of a synthetic
human growth hormone enhancer. Supplements advertised as
a human growth hormone enhancer make claims such as
promoting youthful-looking skin and increasing energy.
• They also both have legitimate medical uses, but they are
more commonly known for their use as bodybuilding
supplements. Although both human growth hormone and
testosterone are used for the same purpose, they are in fact
very different substances.