COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

W8-1 20080908
SUMMARY I

Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Supersonic
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic
Ma  1 : Transonic
 KEYWORDS….
• Converging-Diverging Nozzle
• Back Pressure
• Shock Wave
• Fanno flows
• Rayleigh flows
 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of this session, students are expe
cted to be able to

a) Define the meaning of the terms associated with co

mpressible flow.
b) Determine the change in ideal gas properties in a co
mpressible flow associated with shock wave
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

• Important relations;
1. P – A relation

2. A – V relation
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

Comparison of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers

 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
• For Ma = 1, these ratios are
called critical ratios
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles

• Converging or converging-diverging nozzles are f

ound in many engineering applications
– Steam and gas turbines, aircraft and spacecraft propulsi
on, industrial blast nozzles, torch nozzles
• Here, we will study the effects of back pressure
(pressure at discharge) on the exit velocity, mass fl
ow rate, and pressure distribution along the nozzle
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
• State 1: Pb = P0, there is no flo
w, and pressure is constant.
• State 2: Pb < P0, pressure along n
ozzle decreases.
• State 3: Pb =P* , flow at exit is s
onic, creating maximum flow rat
e called choked flow.
• State 4: Pb < P* there is no chan
ge in flow or pressure distributio
n in comparison to state 3
• State 5: Pb =0, same as state 4.
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles
• Under steady flow conditions, mass flow rate is constant
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles

• The maximum mass flow rate through a nozzle wit

h a given throat area A* is fixed by the P0 and T0 a
nd occurs at Ma = 1

• This principal is important for chemical processes,

medical devices, flow meters, and anywhere the m
ass flux of a gas must be known and controlled.
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles

Combining

with

gives
 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging Nozzles

Relation between Ma and Ma*

 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
• The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is li
mited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which occ
urs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle
• Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (M
a > 1) requires a diverging flow section
– Converging-diverging (C-D) nozzle
– Standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion
• Forcing fluid through a C-D nozzle does not gua
rantee supersonic velocity
– Requires proper back pressure Pb
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles

1. P0 > Pb > Pc
– Flow remains subsonic, and mas
s flow is less than for choked flo
w. Diverging section acts as diff
user
2. Pb = PC
– Sonic flow achieved at throat.
Diverging section acts as diffuse
r. Subsonic flow at exit. Furthe
r decrease in Pb has no effect on
flow in converging portion of no
zzle
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
3. PC > Pb > PE
– Fluid is accelerated to supersonic v
elocities in the diverging section as
the pressure decreases. However, a
cceleration stops at location of nor
mal shock. Fluid decelerates and i
s subsonic at outlet. As Pb is decrea
sed, shock approaches nozzle exit.
4. PE > Pb > 0
– Flow in diverging section is supers
onic with no shock forming in the n
ozzle. Without shock, flow in nozz
le can be treated as isentropic.
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves

• Review
– Sound waves are created by small pressure dist
urbances and travel at the speed of sound
– For some back pressures, abrupt changes in flui
d properties occur in C-D nozzles, creating a sh
ock wave
• Here, we will study the conditions under wh
ich shock waves develop and how they affe
ct the flow.
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves

• Shocks which occur in a plane n

ormal to the direction of flow ar
e called normal shock waves
• Flow process through the shock
wave is highly irreversible and c
annot be approximated as being
isentropic
• Develop relationships for flow p
roperties before and after the sh
ock using conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shock
Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy

Conservation of momentum

Increase in entropy
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shock
• Combine conservation of mass a
nd energy into a single equation a
nd plot on h-s diagram
– Fanno Line : locus of states t
hat have the same value of h0
and mass flux
• Combine conservation of mass a
nd momentum into a single equat
ion and plot on h-s diagram
– Rayleigh line
• Points of maximum entropy corr
espond to Ma = 1.
– Above / below this point is su
bsonic / supersonic
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shock
• There are 2 points where the Fanno a
nd Rayleigh lines intersect : points w
here all 3 conservation equations are
satisfied
– Point 1: before the shock (supers
onic)
– Point 2: after the shock (subsoni
c)
• The larger Ma is before the shock, th
e stronger the shock will be.
• Entropy increases from point 1 to poi
nt 2 : expected since flow through th
e shock is adiabatic but irreversible
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Normal Shock
• Equation for the Fanno line for an ideal ga
s with constant specific heats can be deriv
ed

• Similar relation for Rayleigh line is

• Combining this gives the intersection poin

ts
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock

• Not all shocks are nor

mal to flow direction.
• Some are inclined to t
he flow direction, and
are called oblique sho
cks
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock

• At leading edge, flow is d

eflected through an angle
 called the turning angle
• Result is a straight oblique
shock wave aligned at sho
ck angle  relative to the f
low direction
• Due to the displacement th
ickness, is slightly great
er than the wedge half-ang
le .
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock

• Like normal shocks, Ma decreases across the oblique

shock, and are only possible if upstream flow is super
sonic
• However, unlike normal shocks in which the downstre
am Ma is always subsonic, Ma2 of an oblique shock ca
n be subsonic, sonic, or supersonic depending upon M
a1 and .
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock
• All equations and shock t
ables for normal shocks a
pply to oblique shocks as
well, provided that we us
e only the normal comp
onents of the Mach num
ber
-Ma relationship – Ma1,n = V1,n/c1
– Ma2,n = V2,n/c2
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock

• If wedge half angle 

> max, a detached obli
que shock or bow wav
e is formed
• Much more complicat
ed that straight oblique
shocks.
• Requires CFD for anal
ysis.
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock

• Similar shock waves see for axisymmetric bodies,

however, -Ma relationship and resulting diagra
m is different than for 2D bodies
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Oblique Shock

• For blunt bodies, with

out a sharply pointed n
ose,  = 90, and an att
ached oblique shock c
annot exist regardless
of Ma.
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
• In some cases, flow is turned in the opposite
direction across the shock
• Example : wedge at angle of attack  greater
than wedge half angle 
• This type of flow is called an expanding flo
w, in contrast to the oblique shock which cre
ates a compressing flow.
• Instead of a shock, a expansion fan appears,
which is comprised of infinite number of Ma
ch waves called Prandtl-Meyer expansion
waves
• Each individual expansion wave is isentropic
: flow across entire expansion fan is isentrop
Flow turns gradually as each ic
successful Mach wave turns • Ma2 > Ma1
the flow ay an infinitesimal amount •
P, , T decrease across the fan
 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves
• Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans also occur in axisymmet
ric flows, as in the corners and trailing edges of the con
e cylinder.
Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves

Interaction between shock waves and expansions wa

ves in “over expanded” supersonic jet
 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction

• Many compressible flow problems encountered in practice

involve chemical reactions such as combustion, nuclear rea
ctions, evaporation, and condensation as well as heat gain
or heat loss through the duct wall
• Such problems are difficult to analyze
• Essential features of such complex flows can be captured b
y a simple analysis method where generation/absorption is
modeled as heat transfer through the wall at the same rate
– Still too complicated for introductory treatment since flow may inv
olve friction, geometry changes, 3D effects
• We will focus on 1D flow in a duct of constant cross-sectio
nal area with negligible frictional effects
 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
Consider 1D flow of an ideal gas w
ith constant cp through a duct with
constant A with heat transfer but ne
gligible friction (known as Rayleig
h flow)
Continuity equation

X-Momentum equation
 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
Energy equation
– CV involves no shear, shaft, or other forms of work, and potential
energy change is negligible.

– For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cpT

Entropy change
– In absence of irreversibilities such as friction, entropy changes by
heat transfer only
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
• Infinite number of downstream sta
tes 2 for a given upstream state 1
• Practical approach is to assume va
rious values for T2, and calculate a
ll other properties as well as q.
• Plot results on T-s diagram
– Called a Rayleigh line
• This line is the locus of all physica
lly attainable downstream states
• S increases with heat gain to point
a which is the point of maximum
entropy (Ma =1)
Adiabatic Duct Flow with Frictio
n
• Friction must be included for flow through l
ong ducts, especially if the cross-sectional a
rea is small.
• Here, we study compressible flow with sign
ificant wall friction, but negligible heat tran
sfer in ducts of constant cross section.
Adiabatic Duct Flow with Frictio
n
Consider 1D adiabatic flow of an i
deal gas with constant cp through a
duct with constant A with significa
nt frictional effects (known as Fan
no flow)
Continuity equation

X-Momentum equation
Adiabatic Duct Flow with Frictio
n
 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
Energy equation
– CV involves no heat or work, and potential energy change is negli
gible.

– For and ideal gas with constant cp, h = cpT

Entropy change
–
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
• Infinite number of downstream st
ates 2 for a given upstream state
1
• Practical approach is to assume v
arious values for T2, and calculat
e all other properties as well as fr
iction force.
• Plot results on T-s diagram
– Called a Fanno line
• This line is the locus of all physic
ally attainable downstream states
• s increases with friction to point
of maximum entropy (Ma =1).
• Two branches, one for Ma < 1, o
ne for Ma >1
Duct Flow with Heat Transfer
and Negligible Friction
One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
• For flow through nozzles, d
iffusers, and turbine blade p
assages, flow quantities var
y primarily in the flow direc
tion
– Can be approximated as 1D i
sentropic flow
• Consider example of Conve
rging-Diverging Duct
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

• Relationship between V, , and A are complex

• Derive relationship using continuity, energy, speed
of sound equations
• Continuity

– Differentiate and divide by mass flow rate (AV)

One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

• Derived relation (on image a

t left) is the differential form
of Bernoulli’s equation.
• Combining this with result f
rom continuity gives

• Using thermodynamic relati

ons and rearranging
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

• This is an important relationship

– For Ma < 1, (1 - Ma2) is positive  dA and dP have th
e same sign.
• Pressure of fluid must increase as the flow area of the duct incr
eases, and must decrease as the flow area decreases
– For Ma > 1, (1 - Ma2) is negative  dA and dP have o
pposite signs.
• Pressure must increase as the flow area decreases, and must de
crease as the area increases
 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow
Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area

• A relationship between dA and dV can be derived

by substituting V = -dP/dV (from the differential
Bernoulli equation)

• Since A and V are positive

– For subsonic flow (Ma < 1) dA/dV < 0
– For supersonic flow (Ma > 1) dA/dV > 0
– For sonic flow (Ma = 1) dA/dV = 0