Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 51

Motivation

Motivation
What Is Motivation?

Direction

Intensity Persistence
Direction, Intensity and Persistence
• Fixing a particular goal- Direction
• Effort put in to achieve the goal- Intensity
• For a time (Till achieving the goal)-
Persistence
What is Motivation at Work ?

 Motivation.

– The individual forces that account for the

direction, level, and persistence of a person’s


effort expended at work.
What is Motivation to Work?
 Direction.
– An individual’s choice when presented with a
number of possible alternatives.
 Level.
– The amount of effort a person puts forth.
 Persistence.
– The length of time a person stays with a given
action.
The Motivation Process
Unsatisfied
Tension
Need

Search
Drives
Behavior

Satisfied Reduction
Need of Tension
The Motivation Process

Reduction
Unsatisfied Search Satisfied
Tension Drives of
need behavior need
tension

Internal Observable externally Internal


Characteristics of Motivation
1. Motivation is an internal feeling (Based
on his needs in his mind).

2. Person in totality, not in part is


motivated (Person having organisational
commitment).

3. Motivation is the product of anticipated


values (The person feels that the goal is
realistic).
Theories of Motivation
 Major Theories.
– Maslow’s,
– ERG
– McClelland’s
– Hertzberg’s
– Theory X and Y
– Expectancy
– Goal Setting
– Equity
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied externally;
physiological and safety needs.

Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied internally;
social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-
actual-
ization

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological
Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Psychological: Safety: Social:


Includes hunger, Includes security Includes
thirst, shelter, sex, and protection affection,
and other bodily from physical belongingness,
needs. and emotional acceptance, and
harm. friendship.
Esteem: Self-actualization:
Includes internal esteem The drive to become one
factors such as self-respect, is capable of becoming;
autonomy, and achievement; includes growth,
and external esteem factors achieving one’s potential,
such as status, recognition, and and self-fulfillment.
attention.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
– Five need levels occur in a hierarchy of importance.
– Lowest unmet need has strongest effect
– When lower need is satisfied, next higher need
becomes the primary motivator
– Satisfaction-progression process
– Satisfaction of one need level may not decrease it
importance and increase importance of next need
level.
– Needs vary according to:
• A person’s career stage.
• Organizational size.
• Geographic location.
Evaluating Maslow’s Theory
– Lack of support for theory

– Needs don’t cluster around Maslow’s categories

– Needs change more rapidly than Maslow stated

– Primary needs aren’t always lowest in the hierarchy

– Values influence needs

– Conclusion: Needs hierarchy might vary from one


person to the next (not innate or universal)
ERG Theory
– Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
– Collapses Maslow’s five categories into three
categories: Existence needs, Relatedness
needs, and Growth needs.
– More than one need category may be
activated at the same time.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory

SA Growth
Esteem

Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety & Security
Existence
Physiological
ERG Theory — cont.
– Existence needs.
• Desire for physiological and material well-being.

– Relatedness needs.
• Desire for satisfying interpersonal relationships.

– Growth needs.
• Desire for continued personal growth and
development.
McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation

Need for
Achievement
(nAch)
The Theory
of Needs
Need for
Power
(nPow)
David
McClelland
Need for
Affiliation
(nAff)
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement Need for Affiliation
The drive to excel, to achieve The desire for friendly
in relation to a set of and close personal
standards, to strive to relationships.
succeed.

Need for Power nPow


The need to make others
behave in a way that they
would not have behaved
otherwise.
nAch nAff
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for Achievement
- a manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns individuals’
issues of excellence,
competition, challenging
goals, persistence, and
overcoming difficulties
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for Power - a
manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to make
an impact on others,
influence others, change
people or events, and make
a difference in life
McClelland’s Need Theory
Need for Affiliation - a
manifest (easily
perceived) need that
concerns an individual’s
need to establish and
maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships
with other people
Motivational Need Theories
Maslow Alderfer McClelland
Self-actualization Growth Need for
Higher Esteem Achievement
Order self Need for
Needs interpersonal Power
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation

Lower Safety & Security


Order
interpersonal
Needs physical Existence
Physiological
Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory
Herzberg Two-Factor Theory

 Hygiene factors.
– Sources of job dissatisfaction.
– Associated with the job context or work
setting.
– Improving hygiene factors prevent people
from being dissatisfied but do not contribute to
satisfaction.
Herzberg Two-Factor Theory

 Motivator factors.
– Sources of job satisfaction.
– Associated with the job content.
– Building motivator factors into the job enables
people to be satisfied.
– Absence of motivator factors in the job results
in low satisfaction, low motivation, and low
performance.
Motivation-Hygiene
Theory of Motivation
• Company policy & Motivation factors
administration increase job satisfaction
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions • Achievement
• Salary • Achievement recognition
• Status • Work itself
• Security • Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction • Salary?
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg asked: “What do people want from their jobs?” He found that:

hygiene factors determine motivators determine


job dissatisfaction job satisfaction

• Quality of supervision • Career Advancement


• Rate of pay • Personal growth
• Company policies • Recognition
• Working conditions
• Responsibility
• Relations with others
• Job security • Achievement

High High
Job Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction
0
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike
work, lack ambition, avoid
responsibility, and must be
directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y
Assumes that employees like
work, seek responsibility, are
capable of making decisions,
and exercise self-direction and
self-control when committed to
a goal.
Having Little Ambition

Theory X Disliking Work


Managers See Workers As…

Avoiding Responsibility

Self-Directed

Theory Y Enjoying Work


Managers See Workers As…

Accepting Responsibility
Expectancy Theory

– Developed by Victor Vroom.


– A person’s motivation is a multiplicative
function of:
• Expectancy.
• Instrumentality
• Valence.
Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy.
– The probability assigned by an individual that work
effort will be followed by a given level of task
accomplishment.

 Instrumentality.
– The probability assigned by the individual that a given
level of achieved task performance will lead to various
work outcomes.

 Valence.
– The value attached by the individual to various work
outcomes.
Expectancy Model of Motivation

Effort
Effort Performance Reward

Perceived effort - Perceived Perceived


performance performance - value of reward
probability reward probability
“If I work hard, “What rewards “What rewards
will I get the job will I get when do I value?”
done?” the job is well
done?”
Expectancy Theory

Individual 1 Individual 2 Organizational


Effort Performance Rewards

1. Effort-performance relationship
Personal
2. Performance-rewards relationship
Goals
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
Expectancy Theory

Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a specific level


of performance

Instrumentality: A performance  outcome


perception.

Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome


Managerial Implications of
Expectancy Theory
• Determine the outcomes employees value.
• Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors
can be rewarded.
• Make sure employees can achieve targeted
performance levels.
• Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of
performance.
• Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to
motivate high effort.
• Monitor the reward system for inequities.
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals, with
feedback, lead to higher performance.

Factors influencing the goals–


performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-
efficacy, task characteristics, and
national culture.
Goal-setting theory
Motivation occurs if individuals clearly know what to do, how to
do it, when, etc.

• Goals are a potent motivating force


• Specific goals lead to increased performance, vague goals don’t
• Challenging goals, when accepted, result in higher output than easy
goals
• Goals are more easily achieved if there is feedback on progress
made
• Holding ability and acceptance constant; the more difficult the goals,
the higher the level of performance
• Goals can be a major source of work motivation
Insights from Goal-Setting Theory
• Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance.
- Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy to
achieve.
- Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance
because people begin to experience failure.

• Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple


Rather Than Complex Tasks.
- Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal.
- Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex
tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for
solving these types of problems.

• Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals.


- Goals and feedback should be used together.
Insights from Goal-Setting Theory
• Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals
Are Equally Effective.
- Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach.
Different methods work in different situations.

• Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-


Setting Outcomes.
- Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees
are committed to their goals.
- Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees are
not committed to their goals.
- Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for
employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring
cooperation.
Guidelines for Writing “SMART”
Goals

Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
Equity Theory
– J. Stacy Adams.

– People gauge the fairness of their work outcomes in


relation to others.

– Perceived inequity occurs when there is an


unfavorable social comparison of work outcomes.

– When perceived inequity occurs, people will be


motivated to remove the discomfort.

(Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes


with those of others and then respond to eliminate
any inequities)
Equity theory — cont.
– Felt negative inequity.
• Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than
others in proportion to work inputs.
– Felt positive inequity.
• Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than
others in proportion to work inputs.
Equity Theory
Perceived Employee’s
Ratio Comparisona Assessment
Outcomes A < Outcomes B Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A = Outcomes B Equity
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A > Outcomes B Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B
Equity theory — cont.
 Equity restoration behaviors.
– Change work inputs.
– Change the outcomes received.
– Leave the situation.
– Change the comparison points.
– Psychologically distort the comparisons.
– Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the
comparison person.
Equity theory — cont.
 Equity theory implications.
– Inequity perceptions are entirely from reward
recipient’s perspective, not from reward
giver’s perspective.
– The equity process must be managed so as
to influence the reward recipient’s equity
perceptions.
Special Motivation Issues
• Professionals
• Contingent workers
• Diversified workforce
• Low-skilled service workers
• Highly repetitive tasks
Special Issues in Motivation
• Motivating Professionals
– Provide challenging projects.
– Allow them the autonomy to be productive.
– Reward with educational opportunities.
– Reward with recognition.
– Express interest in what they are doing.
– Create alternative career paths.
• Motivating Contingent Workers
– Provide opportunity for permanent status.
– Provide opportunities for training.
– Provide equitable pay.
Special Issues in Motivation
(cont’d)
• Motivating the Diversified Workforce
– Provide flexible work, leave, and pay schedules.
– Provide child and elder care benefits.
– Structure working relationships to account for cultural
differences and similarities.
• Motivating Low-Skilled Service Workers
– Recruit widely.
– Increase pay and benefits.
– Make jobs more appealing.
Special Issues in Motivation
(cont’d)
• Motivating People Doing Highly Repetitive Tasks
– Recruit and select employees that fit the job.
– Create a pleasant work environment.
– Mechanize the most distasteful aspects of the job.

Вам также может понравиться