Casting Manufacturing Processes

Chapter 10
Fundamentals of Metal Casting

Chapter 11
Metals for Casting
Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet metal processing

Powder- and Ceramics Processing

Plastics processing

Cutting

Joining

Surface treatment
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
CASTING
Overview of Casting Technology
Heating and Pouring
Solidification and Cooling
Classification of solidification processes
Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into
a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity

Melt the metal Pour it into a mold Let it freeze

Refractory mold  pour liquid metal  solidify, remove  finish

 Casting Advantages:

 Can create complex part geometries

 Can create both external and internal shapes
 complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections

• VERSATILE: small (~10 grams)  very large parts (~1000 Kg)

• ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)

• ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all directions

Some casting processes are net shape; others are near

net shape
Can produce very large parts
Some casting methods are suited to mass production
 Disadvantages of Casting

Different disadvantages for different casting

processes:
Limitations on mechanical properties
Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for
some processes; e.g., sand casting
Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten
metals
Environmental problems
 Parts Made by Casting

Big parts: engine blocks and heads for automotive

vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine frames,
railway wheels, pipes, big bells, big statues, and pump
housings
Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small statues,
and frying pans
All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous
Different Casting Processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap poor finish & tolerance engine blocks,
cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods, gear
production rate housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads, brake
pattern shapes strength components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, low prototypes of
finish production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high accuracy, small sizes impellers, injection
good finish mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent finish small parts, expensive jewellery

Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear housings
mold production rate shapes only
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy, costly dies, small parts, gears, camera bodies,
high production rate non-ferrous metals car wheels
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few shapes pipes, boilers,
quality flywheels
Sand Casting
Open Molds and Closed Molds Sand Casting
 Sand Casting

cope: top half

drag: bottom half

core: for internal cavities

pattern: positive

funnel  sprue 
 runners  gate 
 cavity 
 {risers, vents}
 Gating System
Metal is poured into Cavity through a Channel called
sprue, which transmits the molten metal via runner
into the mold cavity
At top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to
minimize splash and turbulence as the metal flows
into down sprue. The runner should not be big
because it will increase the amount of the waste
metal.
It should not be small because this enhances rapid
solidification in the runner causing a blockage

At the bottom of the sprue there is a gap called well for

the collection of the unwanted sand, which comes with
the flowing metal
 Riser
Reservoir in the mold which is a source of
liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification
The riser must be designed to freeze after the
main casting in order to satisfy its function

To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is

desirable for the volume of metal in the riser
to be a minimum
Since the geometry of the riser is normally
selected to maximize the V/A ratio, this allows
reduction of riser volume as much as possible
 Sand Casting Considerations..

(d) taper

- do we need it ?

(e) core prints, chaplets

- hold the core in position chaplet

- chaplet is metal (why?)

Mold
cavity

(f) cut-off, finishing

Forming the Mold Cavity

(a) How do we make the pattern?

[cut, carve, machine]

Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, which has the shape of the part

(b) Why is the pattern not exactly identical to the part shape?
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal as it solidifies
and cools , post-processing
- pattern outer surfaces; (inner surfaces : core)
(c) parting line
The reason for this is to remove the tasted part
easier from the mold
- how to determine?
 Pouring the Molten Metal
• For this step to be successful, metal must flow into all regions of the
mold, most importantly the main cavity, before solidifying
Pouring the Molten Metal
• Factors that determine success:
– Pouring temperature
– Pouring rate
– Turbulence

Solidification of Metals
Transformation of molten metal back into solid state
Solidification differs depending on whether the metal is
a pure element or an alloy
 Directional Solidification

To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is

desirable for regions of the casting most distant from the
liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification to
progress from these remote regions toward the riser(s)
Thus, molten metal is continually available from risers to
prevent shrinkage voids
The term directional solidification describes this aspect of
freezing and methods by which it is controlled
Achieving Directional Solidification
Desired directional solidification is achieved using Chvorinov's Rule to design the
casting itself, its orientation in the mold, and the riser system that feeds it
Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from riser, so freezing
occurs first in these regions, and the liquid metal supply for the rest of the casting
remains open
Chills ‑ internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid
freezing in certain regions of the casting
A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point (same as melting point)

Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting

 Solidification of Pure Metals
Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin of solid
metal is formed at the interface immediately after
pouring
Skin thickness increases to form a shell around the
molten metal as solidification progresses
Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into mold, as
well as thermal properties of the metal
Solidification of Pure Metals

Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal, showing randomly oriented grains of small
size near the mold wall, and large columnar grains oriented toward the center of the casting
Solidification of some Compounds

Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting,

showing segregation of alloying components in
center of casting
 Solidification Time
Solidification takes time
Total solidification time TTS = time required for
casting to solidify after pouring
TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TST  Cm  
 A
where TST = total solidification time; V = volume
of the casting; A = surface area of casting; n =
exponent with typical value = 2; and Cm is mold
constant
 Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule

• Cm depends on mold material, thermal

properties of casting metal, and pouring
temperature relative to melting point
• Value of Cm for a given casting operation
can be based on experimental data from
previous operations carried out using same
mold material, metal, and pouring
temperature, even though the shape of the
part may be quite different
 What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us

A casting with a higher volume‑to‑surface area ratio

cools and solidifies more slowly than one with a lower
ratio
To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for riser must be
greater than TST for main casting
Since riser and casting mold constants will be equal,
design the riser to have a larger volume‑to‑area ratio so
that the main casting solidifies first
This minimizes the effects of shrinkage
 Casting Quality
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a
casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the cast product.

Casting Defects:
1) Misruns (due to rapid solidification in the runner)
2) Cold shuts (due to rapid solidification before complete filling of
the mold)
3) Cold shots (due to splattered globules of metal during pouring)
4) Shrinkage cavity (due to lack of riser system)
5) Microporosity (due to localized solidification shrinkage)
6) Hot tearing (due to the die's prevention of contraction)
Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification
and cooling: (0) starting level of molten metal
immediately after pouring; (1) reduction in level caused
by liquid contraction during cooling (dimensional
reductions are exaggerated for clarity in sketches)
reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity caused by
solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height and diameter
due to thermal contraction during cooling of the solid metal
(dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity in our sketches)

Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume per unit weight of metal

Exception: cast iron with high C content ; Graphitization during final stages of
freezing causes expansion that counteracts volumetric decrease associated with
phase change
Defects related with sand molds

Defects related with sand molds :

1) Sand blow
2) Pinholes
3) Sand wash
4) Scabs
5) Penetration
6) Mold shift
7) Core shift
8) Mold crack
 Inspection Methods
Inspection Methods:
1) Visual Inspection to detect obvious defects such as Misruns,
surface flaws.
2) Dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have
been met.
3) Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests related
with the quality
a) Pressure testing to locate teaks in the casting
b) Radiographic methods magnetic particle tests, use of
fluorescent penetrants, and supersonic testing to detect
either surface or internal defects in casting.
c) Mechanical testing to determine properties such as
tensile strength and hardness.
Shell mold casting - metal, 2-piece pattern, 175C-370C
- coated with a lubricant (silicone)
- mixture of sand, thermoset resin/epoxy
- cure (baking)
- remove patterns, join half-shells  mold
- pour metal
- solidify (cooling)
- break shell  part
Expendable Mold Casting

- Styrofoam pattern
- dipped in refractory slurry  dried
- sand (support)
- pour liquid metal
- foam evaporates, metal fills the shell
- cool, solidify
- break shell  part
molten
metal

support polystyrene
sand pattern burns;
polystyrene gas escapes
pattern
Plaster-mold, Ceramic-mold casting

Plaster-mold slurry: plaster of paris (CaSO4), talc, silica flour

Ceramic-mold slurry: silica, powdered Zircon (ZrSiO4)

- The slurry forms a shell over the pattern

- Dried in a low temperature oven
- Remove pattern
- Backed by clay (strength), baked (burn-off volatiles)
- cast the metal
- break mold  part

Plaster-mold: good finish (Why ?)

plaster: low conductivity => low warpage, residual stress
low mp metal (Zn, Al, Cu, Mg)

Ceramic-mold: good finish

high mp metals (steel, …) => impeller blades, turbines, …
Investment casting (lost wax casting)

(a) Wax pattern (b) Multiple patterns

(injection molding) assembled to wax sprue

(c) Shell built 

(d) dry ceramic immerse into ceramic slurry
melt out the wax  immerse into fine sand
fire ceramic (burn wax) (few layers)

(e) Pour molten metal (gravity)

 cool, solidify (f) Break ceramic shell
[Hollow casting: (vibration or water blasting)
pouring excess metal before solidification

(g) Cut off parts

(high-speed friction saw)
 finishing (polish)
 Vacuum casting

Similar to investment casting, except: fill mold by reverse gravity

Easier to make hollow casting: early pour out

Permanent mold casting

MOLD: made of metal (cast iron, steel, refractory alloys)

CORE: (hollow parts)

- metal: core can be extracted from the part
- sand-bonded: core must be destroyed to remove

Mold-surface: coated with refractory material

- Spray with lubricant (graphite, silica)

- improve flow, increase life

- good tolerance, good surface finish

- low mp metals (Cu, Bronze, Al, Mg)

 Die casting
- a type of permanent mold casting
- common uses: components for
rice cookers, stoves, fans, washing-, drying machines,
fridges, motors, toys, hand-tools, car wheels, …

HOT CHAMBER: (low mp e.g. Zn, Pb; non-alloying)

(i) die is closed, gooseneck cylinder is filled with molten metal
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal through gooseneck into cavity
(iii) metal is held under pressure until it solidifies
(iv) die opens, cores retracted; plunger returns
(v) ejector pins push casting out of ejector die

COLD CHAMBER: (high mp e.g. Cu, Al)

(i) die closed, molten metal is ladled into cylinder
(ii) plunger pushes molten metal into die cavity
(iii) metal is held under high pressure until it solidifies
(iv) die opens, plunger pushes solidified slug from the cylinder
(v) cores retracted
(iv) ejector pins push casting off ejector die
Centrifugal casting

- permanent mold
- rotated about its axis at 300 ~ 3000 rpm
- molten metal is poured

- Surface finish: better along outer diameter than inner,

- Impurities, inclusions, closer to the inner diameter (why ?)
Casting Design: Typical casting defects
Casting Design: Defects and Associated Problems

- Surface defects: finish, stress concentration

- Interior holes, inclusions: stress concentrations

0

max
2a

max = 0(1 + 2b/a)

2b

0
Casting Design: guidelines

(a) avoid sharp corners

(b) use fillets to blend section changes smoothly
(c1) avoid rapid changes in cross-section areas
Casting Design: guidelines

(c1) avoid rapid changes in cross-section areas

(c2) if unavoidable, design mold to ensure
- easy metal flow
- uniform, rapid cooling (use chills, fluid-cooled tubes)
Casting Design: guidelines

(d) avoid large, flat areas

- warpage due to residual stresses (why?)
Casting Design: guidelines

(e) provide drafts and tapers

- easy removal, avoid damage
- along what direction should we taper ?
Casting Design: guidelines

(f) account for shrinkage

- geometry
- shrinkage cavities
Casting Design: guidelines

(g) proper design of parting line

- “flattest” parting line is best

Summary

Further reading: Chapters 10-16, Kalpakjian & Schmid