c





 
 


  
   
 
 

Presented in collaboration with Tiffany Troubady,

Troubady,
John DiGiacomo, and Gaelan Jones
Class of 2009
 m 
M ×ain Exports: Chicle, ×ahogany
M Colonized by: British

M Independence Gained: 1981

 m !
! "


M In 1927, Creole merchants and professionals replaced the
representatives of British landowners on the Legislative
Council in the Belize Government.
± The participation of the Creole elite in the political process was
evidence of emerging social changes that were largely
concealed by economic stagnation
M The Great Depression shattered the colony's economy, and
unemployment increased rapidly
M The worst hurricane in the country's recent history
demolished Belize Town in 1931, killing more than 1,000
people and worsening the already depressed economy
± The British government seized the opportunity to impose
tighter control on the colony and endowed the governor with
the power to enact laws in emergency situations
M The Belize Estate and Produce Company was one of the
only companies that survived the depression because it was
primarily a European company
 m !
! #




M The ×asters and Servants Act of 1883, made it a criminal offense
for a laborer to breach a contract.
M In 1931 the governor, Sir John Burdon, rejected proposals to
legalize trade unions and to introduce a minimum wage and
sickness insurance
M In 1934 there was a series of demonstrations, strikes, petitions,
and riots that marked the beginning of modern politics and the
independence movement
M Antonio Soberanis Gómez and his colleagues of the Labourers and
Unemployed Association (LUA) attacked the governor and his
officials, the rich merchants, and the Belize Estate and Produce
Company demanding social reform
M R
Colonial ties to Jamaica severed; separate colony status
announced. Guatemala threatens to repudiate treaty of 1859.
M R 
×ahogany workers organize
M RR Ôurricane hits; Britain supplies
aid for reconstruction and regains
reserve powers under new
constitution
 m !
! $

M RR Belizean soldiers returning from World War I protest
discrimination in Ex-
Ex-Servicemen's Riot.
M R Establishment of Civil Service Association
M R Constitution promulgated with elective principle. Property,
income, and literacy qualifications restrict eligible voters.
M R -ormation of Laborers and Unemployed Association (LUA),
which stages boycotts and demonstrations.
R -ormation of British Ôonduras Workers and Tradesmen
Union, which later becomes General Workers Union (1943).
R
R ×ass meetings held; demands made for adult suffrage and
right to elect government. Labor unions legalized by colonial
governor.
M R
 Belize is defined as the 23rd department in Guatemala's
new constitution.
M In new constitution, majority of Executive Council is elected.
M R General Workers Union (GWU) mounts 49- 49-
day strike.
M R
uew constitution promulgated which
provides for universal adult suffrage, and elected
majority in Legislative Council. PUP begins 30-
30-
year winning streak in all general and most local
elections.
R Semi -ministerial government introduced
but governor keeps reserve powers.
M R -ormation of uational Independence Party
(uIP) as first political opposition to PUP. (This
signifies Belize becoming a democracy)
M RR Belize obtains associate-
associate-member status in
United uations Economic Commission for Latin
America. Belize turns down offer to become
associate state of Guatemala.
M R Guatemala breaks off negotiations with
Britain, threatens war.
R U.S. lawyer appointed by President
Johnson mediates dispute with Guatemala. Ôis
proposal favors Guatemala and is rejected by all
parties in Belize.
M R Guatemala breaks off negotiations with
Britain, threatens war by mobilizing troops at
border. Britain sends fleet and several thousand
troops to Belize.
M Ôurricane Ôattie, 1961, levels Belize
City. (Again«)
M R Guatemala breaks off negotiations with Britain, threatens war.
M R U.S. lawyer appointed by President Johnson mediates dispute with
Guatemala. Ôis proposal favors Guatemala and is rejected by all parties in
Belize.
M R Guatemala breaks off negotiations with Britain, threatens war by
mobilizing troops at border. Britain sends fleet and several thousand
troops to Belize.
M R uame changes to Belize; Belmopan becomes capital. -ormation of
the United Democratic Party (UDP).
M R Tension with Guatemala prompts Britain to send squadron of Ôarrier
jets to Belize. Britain allows Belize government to act in international
matters. -irst of series of votes by United uations on Belize's right to self-
self-
determination, United States abstains.
M R Panama's President Torrijos supports Belize's independence bid.
M R Latin American countries begin to shift from siding with Guatemala
to solidarity with Belize.
M R Ôurricane Greta causes major
damage, leveling banana plantations
(and Belize city of course) but no
deaths. -ormation of Belize Defense
-orce.
M R Refugees from El Salvador and Guatemala
begin flowing into Belize.
M R  Uu passes resolution demanding secure
independence of Belize before next session in
1981. uo country votes against measure;
Guatemala refuses to vote.
M R R uew constitution promulgated.
± 2
 uegotiations with Guatemala (Ôeads of Agreement)
provoke riots and state of emergency in Belize.
±  . Belize becomes fully independent member of
Commonwealth of uations.
M R
The UDP wins in landslide victory in
parliamentary elections, ×anuel Esquivel
becomes prime minister.
M RR Disatisfaction from the public with party politics and
failed parliamentary rule. -irst Civics and Government book
sent to Ôigh Schools through Belize, pointing out, Belize
was u T A DE× CRACY! Seven more Civics and
Government books published and mailed to Ôigh Schools
and civic leaders and politicians, outlining problems with
the governing political setup of the Belize Constitution over
the next five years.
M R The main newspapers, the Amandala and The
Reporter take up articles on revision of the Belize
Constitution, seeking de-
de-centralization and democracy.
M R Esquivel returns as Prime ×inister. uegotiations with
Guatemala collapse due to Serrano's problems.
 u %&
M ×ain Exports: Bananas, Sugar,
Coffee, Beef, Tobacco
M Colonized by: Spain

M Independence Gained: 1850

M 1893: The Liberal Party seizes power and names José Santos Zelaya
president of uicaragua.
M 1907: U.S. war ships take possession of the -onseca Gulf.
1909: Two U.S. mercenaries are shot with authorization from the
uicaraguan uationalist government. U.S. officials respond with the Knox
uote, which legitimizes uorth American intervention in uicaraguan affairs.
M 1910: U.S. troops impose a puppet government in uicaragua. Liberal
President, José Santos Zelaya is forced out of office and Adolfo Díaz is
made provisional president.
M 1912: Díaz requests U.S. military assistance to control civil unrest.
uicaraguans resist U.S. occupation and the national hero, Benjamin
Zeledón dies.
M 1914: uicaraguan president, Emiliano Chamorro signs the Bryan-
Bryan-
Chamorro Treaty with the U.S. administration. In exchange for $3 million,
the U.S. acquires the right to build a canal across uicaraguan territory,
lease the Great and Little Corn Islands, and establish a naval base in the
Gulf of -onseca. The Bryan-
Bryan-Chamorro Treaty provokes anti-anti-uorth
American sentiment and guerrilla warfare in uicaragua, and elicits protest
from other Central American countries.
M 1925: When U.S. forces withdraw from uicaragua, rebellions ensue; and
the marines return to quell the disturbances.
M 1927: Liberal candidate, Gen. José ×oncada wins the presidential elections, which
are monitored by U.S. officials. ×oncada, who had fought against U.S. intervention,
enters into negotiations with Ôenry L. Stimson, personal envoy of President Coolidge.
M 1927: Augusto César Sandino, Commander of the Army to Defend the uational
Sovereignty, rejects ×oncada's pact with Stimson. Sandino launches a guerrilla war
against U.S. forces in uicaragua.
M 1927--1934: After five hundred battles fought against U.S. marines and sympathizers,
1927
Sandino successfully expels U.S. armed forces from uicaragua.
M 1934: The U.S. withdraws, leaving uicaraguan military officer, Anastasio Somoza as
Commander of the uational Guard.
M 1934: Under the tutelage of Arthur Bliss Lane, U.S. ambassador to uicaragua,
Somoza masterminds the assassination of Augusto César Sandino.
M 1936: Anastasio Somoza founds a brutal dictatorship, fueled by U.S. funds, which is
passed from father to son to brother for over 43 years.
M 1941: -ollowing the bombing of Pearl Ôarbor, uicaragua enters World War II 1945:
± In June, uicaragua is recognized as a charter member of the United uations.
M 1948: uicaragua joins the rganization of American States. Somoza dispatches an
interventionist military force to Costa Rica.
M 1954: Somoza sends mercenary forces to Guatemala to help U.S. forces
oust socialist president, Jacobo Arbenz.
M 1955: Somoza pulls uicaraguan troops from the Dominican Republic, who
have intervened with U.S. military operations.
M 1956: Anastasio Somoza is assassinated and succeeded by his son, Luis
Somoza Debayle.
-or four years after his son's regime, close associates of the Somoza
family maintain political control of uicaragua.
M 1960: The U.S. dispatches its Caribbean -loat to uicaragua and Guatemala
to protect administrations from popular sector uprisings
M 1961: US mercenaries depart from uicaragua's Puerto Cabezas and invade
Playa Girón, Cuba. They suffer a historical defeat known as the "Bay of
Pigs."
M 1966: Somoza Debayle makes René Schick president . During a visit to
the U.S., Schick volunteers uicaragua to serve as an U.S. military base for
invading Cuba.
M 1967: Somoza Debayle establishes a military autocracy, silencing his
opposition through the uational Guard.
M 1968: uicaraguan functionaries, sent by Somoza Debayle, help overthrow
Panamanian president, Arnulfo Arias.
M 1971: Somoza Debayle steps down from government, but retains the
post, Chief of the Armed -orces. A governing coalition is formed, which is
comprised of a Conservative and two Liberal executives.
M 1972: A devastating earthquake strikes ×anagua, leaving 6,000 dead and
20,000 injured. Somoza Debayle embezzles money from international
relief funds. ×artial law is declared; and Somoza Debayle is made Chief
Executive of the uicaraguan government. U.S. marines are sent to
uicaragua to insure Somoza's regime is instituted.
M 1974: Somoza is decreed president of uicaragua.
M 1978: By the end of the decade, uicaragua experiences an economic
slowdown and circumstances are ripe for a revolution. Joaquín Chamorro,
editor of the anti-
anti-Somoza newspaper, La Prensa, is assassinated. The
public holds Somoza responsible. Led by the Sandinista uational Liberation
-ront (-SLu), anti-
anti-Somoza guerrilla forces launch a violent uprising
against the military. uicaragua is plunged into a near civil war.
M 1979: Somoza resigns on July 17th, and flees to ×iami, exiling to
Paraguay. n July 20th, Sandinista forces enter ×anagua, and hundreds
of thousands of uicaraguans celebrate their triumph.
M 1980: Somoza is assassinated in Paraguay. The Sandinista government
implements social programs, which receive international recognition for
their gains in literacy, health care, education, childcare, unions, and land
reform. -or the first time in history, uicaraguans are called to decide their
own future. Just as they struggle for increased self-
self-sufficiency, the
Reagan--Bush administration begins funding the Contra War. The goal is to
Reagan
undermine the Sandinista regime. This ten- ten-year war is fought at the cost
of 60, 000 lives, 178 billion dollars, and the uicaraguan infrastructure and
economy.
M 1980: Political control is shifted to a five-
five-member junta, which rules
uicaragua from 1980 to 1985. Among the junta members is Violeta
Chamorro, the widow of the late journalist, Joaquín Chamorro.
M 1985: -SLu's presidential candidate, Daniel rtega takes office and
declares a state of national emergency, suspending civil rights. The Iran-
Iran-
Contra Affair begins. This U.S.-
U.S.-orchestrated operation secretly channels
funds to the Contras soldiers, which is in direct violation with the Boland
Amendment.
M 1988: uicaragua is a disaster zone, ravaged by civil war and the onslaught
of Ôurricane Ôugo. President rtega agrees to the first round of peace
talks with Contra leaders. A temporary truce is reached in ×arch.
M 1990: The moderate Uu Coalition candidate, Violeta
Chamorro is elected president of uicaragua. Chamorro
improves diplomatic relations with the U.S. At this time, the
-SLu party still holds the majority of popular support in
uicaragua.
M 1991: The Uu coalition governs uicaragua. They severely
cut government spending on successful, Sandinista-
Sandinista-led
social programs in such areas as health care and education.
n July 1st, right wing sectors attack Sandinista land
reforms, which have redistributed land to small-
small-scale
farmers. The impact is felt across the nation.
M 1997: Arnoldo Alemán Lacayo, the Liberal Party's
conservative candidate, wins the presidential elections-
elections- 49
to 39 percent over -SLu opponent, Daniel rtega.
 $ 
M ×ain Exports: Coffee
M Colonized by: Spain and Colombia

M Independence Gained: 1903

M R  - -rance attempts to build a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, but fails due to financial difficulties and the death of more than
20,000 workers from tropical diseases.
M Panama splits from Colombia and becomes fully independent. US buys
rights to build Panama Canal and is given control of the Canal Zone in
perpetuity. Panama Canal completed is completed in 1914
M R
-- Panama ceases to be a US protectorate.
R

M R  R
-R
- General mar Torrijos Ôerrera, the uational Guard chief,
overthrows the elected president and imposes a dictatorship.
M R - US agrees to transfer the canal to Panama as from 31 December
1999.
M R R - Torrijos dies in plane crash.
M R  - -ormer intelligence chief and one-one-time US Central Intelligence
Agency informant ×anuel uoriega becomes head of the uational Guard,
builds up the size of the force, which he renames the Panama Defence
-orces, and greatly increases its power over Panama's political and
economic life.
M R - US charges uoriega with drug smuggling; uoriega
declares state of emergency in the wake of a failed coup.
M R  - pposition wins parliamentary elections, but uoriega
declares results invalid. uoriega declares "state of war" in the face
of increased threats by Washington. US invades Panama, ousts
uoriega and replaces him with Guillermo Endara.
M RR - Parliament approves constitutional reforms, including
abolition of standing army; privatisation begins.
M R - US court finds uoriega guilty of drug offences and
sentences him to 40 years imprisonment, to be served in a US
prison.
M R - ×ireya ×oscoso becomes Panama's first woman president.
M R December - Panama takes full control of the Panama Canal
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M  - ×oscoso announces creation of a panel to investigate
crimes committed while military governments were in power
between 1968 and 1989.
 
'
M ×ain Export: Bananas
M Colonized by: Spain

M Independence Gained: 1850

M R 
- US businessman ×inor Cooper Keith introduces r

  
and starts the United -ruit Company.

M RR - -rederico Tinoco ousts the elected president, Alfredo Gonzalez, but
is himself deposed two years later.
M R


- President Rafael Angel Calderon Guradia, founder of the United
R

Christian Socialist Party (PUSC), introduces liberal reforms, including
recognition of workers' rights and minimum wages.
M R
- SixSix--week civil war over a disputed presidential election result.
M R
 - uew constitution gives women and people of African descent the
right to vote; armed forces abolished and replaced by civil guard; Jose
-igueres -errer is elected president and begins ambitious socialist
program, including introducing a social security system and nationalizing
banks.
M R  - Costa Rica governed by mainly conservative administrations.
M R
- Irazu volcano erupts, causing serious damage to agriculture
R
and economy in general
M R - Arenal volcano erupts, causing many casualties and massive monetary
damage
M R
- Daniel duber (PLu) elected president and pursues socialist policies.
M R - Rodrigo Carazo, a conservative, elected president amid a sharp deterioration
in the economy.
M R  - Luis Alberto ×onge (PLu) elected president and introduces harsh austerity
program ×eanwhile, Costa Rica comes under pressure from the US to fight against
the Sandinistas in uicaragua.
M R  - US
US--trained anti-
anti-guerrilla force begins operating following clashes with
Sandinista troops.
M R  - scar Arias Sanchez (PLu) elected president on a neutral platform.
M R  - Leaders of uicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala and Ôonduras sign peace plan
devised by scar Arias Sanchez, who in turn wins the uobel Peace Prize for the plan.
M R - Rafael Calderon, of the centrist PUSC, elected president.
M R
- Jose ×aria -igueres lsen (PLu) elected president.
M R - ×iguel Angel Rodriguez (PUSC) elected president.
M  - President Rodriguez and his uicaraguan counterpart resolve long-long-standing
dispute over navigation along San Juan river, which serves as their border.
 ï& 
M ×ain Export: -ruits, Vegetables,
Ôandicrafts and Cloth
M Colonized by: Spain

M Independence Gained: 1821

M   - Guatemala ruled by liberal President Justo Rufino Barrios, who
R 
modernises the country, develops the army and introduces coffee growing.
M RR - Jorge Ubico becomes president; his tenure is marked by
repressive rule and then by an improvement in the country's finances.
M R
R - Guatemala declares war on the Axis powers.
M R

- Juan Jose Arevalo becomes president following the overthrow of
Ubico and introduces social-
social-democratic reforms, including setting up a
social security system and redistributing land to landless peasants.
M RR - Colonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman becomes president, continuing
Arevalo's reforms.
M R
- Land reform stops with the accession to power of Colonel Carlos
Castillo in a coup backed by the US and prompted by Arbenz's
nationalisation of plantations of the United -ruit Company.
M R - Colonel Enrique Peralta becomes president following the
assassination of Castillo.
M R - Civilian rule restored; Cesar ×endez elected president.
M R - ×ilitary
×ilitary--backed Carlos Arena elected president.
M R - ×ilitary rulers embark on a programme to eliminate left left--wingers,
resulting in at least 50,000 deaths.
M R - 27,000 people are killed and more than a million rendered
homeless by earthquake.
M R R - Around 11,000 people are killed by death squads and soldiers in
response to growing anti-
anti-government guerrilla activity.
M R  - General Efrain Rios ×ontt gains power following military coup.
M R  - ×ontt ousted in coup led by General ×ejia Victores, who declares
an amnesty for guerrillas.
M R  - ×arco Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo elected president and the
Guatemalan Christian Democratic Party wins legislative elections under a
new constitution.
M R  - Attempt to overthrow Cerezo fails; civil war toll since 1980
reaches 100,000 dead and 40,000 missing.
M RR - Jorge Serrano Elias elected president. Diplomatic relations
restored with Belize, from whom Guatemala had long-
long-standing territorial
claims.
M R - Serrano forced to resign after his attempt to impose an
authoritarian regime ignites a wave of protests; Ramiro de Leon Carpio
elected president by the legislature.
M R
- Peace talks between the government and rebels of
the Guatemalan Revolutionary uational Unity begin; right
right--
wing parties win a majority in legislative elections.
M R - Rebels declare a ceasefire; Uu and US criticise
Guatemala for widespread human rights abuses.
M R - Alvaro Arzu elected president, conducts purge of
senior military officers and signs peace agreement with
rebels, ending 36 years of civil war.
M R - Bishop Juan Gerardi, a human rights campaigner,
murdered.
M R - Uu Uu--backed commission says security forces were
behind 93% of all human rights atrocities committed during
the civil war, which claimed 200,000 lives, and that senior
officials had overseen 626 massacres in ×aya villages.
M  - Alfonso Portillo sworn in as president after winning
elections in 1999
 
 & 
M ×ain Exports: Bananas, Coffee,
Shrimp
M Colonized by: Spain

M Independence Gained: 1821

M US is very economically involved in Ôonduras, with the United
-ruit Company (controlling two-
two-thirds of banana exports by
1913).
M R
 - Ôonduras under right-
R right-wing uational Party of Ôonduras
(PuÔ) dictatorship led by General Tiburcio Carias Andino.
Andino.
M R - Colonel svaldo Lopez Arellano takes power after leading
a coup.
M R - Brief but costly war with El Salvador over heavy
immigration and disputed border.
M R
- Lopez resigns after allegedly accepting a bribe from a US
company.
M R - Colonel Juan Alberto ×elgar Castro take power.
M R - ×elgar ousted in coup led by General Policarpo Paz Garcia.
M R  - General Paz signs peace treaty with El Salvador.
M R R - Roberto Suazo Cordova of the centrist Liberal Party of
Ôonduras (PLÔ) is elected president, leading the first civilian
government in more than a century.
M But armed forces chief General Gustavo Alvarez retains
considerable power and Ôonduras becomes embroiled in various
regional conflicts. US-
US-run camps for training Salvadorans in
counterinsurgency are set up on Ôonduran territory.
M R  - USUS--backed uicaraguan counter
counter--revolutionaries, or
Contras, launch operations to bring down uicaragua's Sandinista
government from Ôonduran territory.
M R    - General Alvarez responds to increasing political unrest
by ordering the detention of trade union activists and left-
left-wing
sympathisers. Death squads are allegedly used to eliminate
subversive elements.
M R
- General Alvarez is deposed amid anti anti--American
demonstrations in Tegucigalpa. US- US-run training camps for
Salvadoran counter-
counter-revolutionaries are shut down, but the
government continues to cooperate with the US administration's
anti--Sandinista activities in return for substantial economic aid.
anti
M R  - Another Liberal Party man, Jose Azcona del Ôoyo, elected
president after the law was changed to stipulate a maximum one- one-
term presidency
M R  - Amnesty granted both to military and left
left--wing guerrillas for abuses
committed during early 1980s.
M R -ebruary - An Amnesty International report alleges an increase in human
rights violations by armed forces and right-
right-wing death squads.
M R August - Inter-
Inter-American Court of Ôuman Rights finds Ôonduran government
guilty of "disappearances" of Ôonduran citizens between 1981 and 1984.
M R  January - General Alvarez is assassinated by left-
left-wing guerrillas in
Tegucigalpa.
M R  -ebruary - Summit of Central American presidents in El Salvador reaches
agreement on demobilisation of uicaraguan Contras based in Ôonduras.
M January - Rafael Callejas sworn in as president; proceeds to introduce neo-
R
January
R
neo-
liberal economic reforms and austerity measures.
M R June - Last uicaraguan Contras leave Ôonduras.
M R - International Court of Justice gives ruling establishing new boundaries
between Ôonduras and El Salvador.
M R ×arch - Government sets up commission to investigate alleged human rights
violations by military.
M R uovember - Liberal Party candidate and veteran rights activist Carlos Reina
elected president. Reina pledges to reform judicial system and limit power of armed
forces.
M R April - Compulsory military service abolished.
M R July - -irst military officers charged with human rights abuses.
M R - Carlos -lores of the Liberal Party elected president; pledges to
restructure armed forces.
M R ×ay - Control of police transferred from military to civilian
authorities, but reports of rights abuses continue.
M R ctober - Ôurricane ×itch devastates Ôonduras.
M R - Armed forces placed under civilian control.
M R
uovember - Congress ratifies 1986 maritime agreement with
R
uovember
Colombia settling claims over the Caribbean Sea. This upsets uicaragua,
which claims some of the area as its own.
M R
December - Ôonduras and uicaragua agree to halt ground troop
R
December
deployments and pull out naval forces from the Caribbean sea pending
resolution of a border dispute.
M R
August - Uu calls on government to prevent extrajudicial killings of
R
August
hundreds of children and teenagers, some at the hands of police officers.
M 
January - Ricardo ×aduro inaugurated as president.

January
 "#

M ×ain Export: Coffee Beans

M Colonized by: Spain

M Independence Gained: 1842

M  - President Gerardo Barrios introduces coffee growing.
R 
M R - Some 30,000 people are killed during the suppression of a peasant uprising
led by Agustine -arabundo ×arti.
M RR - Right
Right--wing uational Conciliation Party (PCu) comes to power after a military
coup.
M R - El Salvador attacks and fights a brief war with Ôonduras following the
eviction of thousands of Salvadoran illegal immigrants from Ôonduras.
M R - Guerrilla activities by the left
left--wing -arabundo ×arti uational Liberation -ront
(-×Lu) intensify amid reports of increased human rights violations by government
troops and death squads; General Carlos Romero elected president.
M R R - Around 30,000 people are killed by army
R army--backed right-
right-wing death
squads.
M R - General Romero ousted in coup by reformist officers who install a military-
military-
civilian junta, but this fails to curb army-
army-backed political violence.
M R  - Archbishop of San Salvador and human rights campaigner scar Romero
assassinated; Jose uapoleon Duarte becomes first civilian president since 1931.
M R R - -rance and ×exico recognise the -×Lu as legitimate political force; US
continues to assist El Salvadoran government whose army continues to back right- right-
wing death squads.
M R  - Extreme right
right--wing uational Republican Alliance (Arena) wins
parliamentary elections marked by violence.
M R
- Duarte wins presidential election.
M R  - Duarte begins quest for negotiated settlement with -×Lu.
M R  - -×Lu attacks intensify; another Arena candidate, Alfredo Cristiani,
voted president in elections widely believed to have been rigged.
M RR - -×Lu recognised as political party; government and -×Lu sign
Uu--sponsored peace accord.
Uu
M R - Government declares amnesty for those implicated by Uu- Uu-
sponsored commission in human rights atrocities.
M R
- Arena candidate Armando Calderon Sol elected president.
M R - -×Lu makes progress in parliamentary elections; leftist Ôector
Silva elected mayor of San Salvador.
M R - Arena candidate -rancisco -lores beats former guerrilla -acundo
Guardado in presidential election.
M R - ×assive earthquakes kill 1,200 people and render another one
million homeless (devastating to economy and social hierarchy)
 

&  (
It is beyond the space allotted here to summarize the massive amount of
. literature and research on the subject. Ôowever, the following important and
relevant points have been made by educational researchers repeatedly:
) When students are actively participating in explaining, thinking, and analyzing
they learn more.
) If you accept the above, then it is the instructor¶s primary task to make
learning interactive.

Set the pace for the class: explain the learning goals, model the behavior
desired, then make the student the teacher. The previous presentation was
crafted by my students. I am very proud of them. I act as the Socratic
questioner, the analyzer, the one who points out problems and limitations, the
clarifier, and (of course) the one who will correct errors as well as adds
supplementary information and personal perspective. uaturally, many, students
if not the vast majority, will need time and guidance in developing these skills.
That¶s also the job of the instructor.
Let your students fly and make them the teacher. You may be pleasantly
surprised with the results.
~ Dr. Juan R. Céspedes, Ph.D.
Please visit my website at Think-Learn.com
-or additional documents
and study guides, please
visit Think-
Think-Learn.com
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