CHAPTER 1

Atomic Structure and Periodic System of the Elements

By :: Putri Ardiana Puspita Sari (X-8/29)

1.1 Atomic Structure
1. John Dalton's Atomic Theory

In 1803, John Dalton argued argued pendapatnaya about atoms. Dalton's atomic

theory was based on two laws, namely the law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier
law) and legal permanent arrangement (legal prouts). Lavosier mennyatakan that
"The total mass of substances before the reaction will always be equal to the total
mass of the substances the reaction." While Prouts states that "the mass ratio of
elements in a compound always remain". From both the Dalton law to express
ideas about the atom as follows:

Atom is the smallest part of the material as it can not be subdivided

Atom is described as a very small solid ball, an element has atoms that are
identical and differ for different elements
The atoms combine to form compounds with a ratio of whole numbers and
simple.For example, water consists of hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms
The chemical reaction is the separation or merger or rearrangement of atoms, so
that atoms can not be created or destroyed.
Dalton hypothesis is described by the model atoms as solid as the starting ball
bullets.

Name : Putri Ardiana Puspita Sari (X-8/29) 2

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Weaknesses:

Daltons theory does not explain the relationship between the

solution of a compound electric current and conductivity.

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2. J. J. Thomson’s Atomic Theory

Based on the discovery of a better cathode tube by William Crookers, then

JJThomson researching more about cathode rays and can be ascertained that cathode
rays are particles, because they can rotate the blades are placed between the cathode
and anode. From the results of this experiment, Thomson stated that cathode rays
are subatomic particles (subatomic particles) which are negatively charged and
hereinafter referred to as electrons.
Atom is a particle that is neutral, because negatively charged electrons, then there
must be another particle-laden positifuntuk menetrallkan negative charge
electrons.From these findings, Thomson rectify the shortcomings of Dalton's atomic
theory and atomic theory, known as Thomson's Atomic Theory. Which states that:

"Atom is a solid ball is positively charged and negatively charged electrons

scattered didalamya"

This atomic model can be described as guava already exfoliated skin. cashew

describe marata scattered electrons in a solid pink meat balls, which is analogous to
the Thomson atomic model as a solid ball positive. Thomson atomic model can be
described as follows:

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Thomson atomic model can be described as
follows:

Weaknesses:

Thomson atomic model of this weakness can not explain

the arrangement of positive and negative charges in the
atomic sphere.

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3. Rutherford Atomic Theory

Rutherford with two of his disciples (Hans Geigerdan Erners Masreden)

conducted an experiment known as the scattering of alpha rays (λ) of thin gold
plate. Previously been found in the alpha particle, which is positively charged
particles and move straight, large penetrating power so it can penetrate thin
sheets of paper. The actual experiment aims to test Thomson's opinion, namely
whether the atom is really a ball of solid positive when subjected to alpha
particle will be reflected or deflected. From their observations, obtained the fact
that when alpha particles were fired in a very thin gold plate, then most of the
alpha particles passed (no deviation angle of less than 1 °), but from observation
Marsden obtained the fact that one in 20,000 alpha particles will turn an angle of
90 ° even more.

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Based on the symptoms that occur, gained some following conclusions:

   1. Atom is not a solid ball, because nearly all the alpha particles passed
   2. If the gold plate is considered as one layer of gold atoms, gold atoms are then in
very small particles are positively charged.
   3. These particles are particles that make up an atomic nucleus, based on the fact that
1 in 20,000 alpha particles will be deflected. When the ratio of 1:20,000 is the diameter
ratio, then the nucleus size is obtained about 10,000 smaller than the overall size of the
atom.

Based on facts obtained from these experiments, Rutherford proposed a model of the
atom, known as Rutherford's Atomic Model which states that the atom consists of a very
small nucleus and a positive charge, surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. Rutherford assumed that nuclei contained within the neutral particles that
function bind a positive particles repel each other so as not to reject.

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Rutherford atomic model can be described as follows:

Weaknesses:

Unable to explain why electrons do not fall into the nucleus.

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4. Bohr Atomic Theory

There 1913, Danish physicist Neils Bohr called failures to improve Rutherford atom
through experiments on the hydrogen atom spectrum. These experiments successfully
illustrate the state of electrons in the occupied area surrounding the nucleus. Bohr's
explanation involves a combination of hydrogen atoms between the classical theory of
Rutherford and quantum theory of Planck, expressed by the four postulates, as follows:

   1. There are only a certain set of orbits allowed for single electron in a hydrogen
atom. Orbit is known as a stationary state of motion (settled) electron and a circular
path around the core.
   2. During the electron is in a stationary trajectory, the electron energy remains so
there's no energy in the form of radiation emitted or absorbed.
   3. Electrons can only move from one track stationary into another stationary
trajectory. In this transition, a certain amount of energy involved, the amount in
accordance with Planck's equation, ΔE = hv.
   4. Stationary trajectory is allowed to have the scale with certain traits, especially
property called angular momentum. The amount of angular momentum is a multiple of
h/2Π or nh/2Π, where n is an integer and h Planck's constant.

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According to the Bohr atom model, the electrons surrounding the nucleus in certain
paths called electron shells or energy levels. Lowest energy level is located most
electron shells in, getting out of the greater number of skin and the higher level of
energy.

Weaknesses:

This atomic model can not explain the spectrum of color from
many electron atoms.

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5. Modern Atomic Theory

Atom model of quantum mechanics developed by Erwin Schrodinger (1926). Before

Erwin Schrodinger, an expert from the German Werner Heisenberg developed the theory
of quantum mechanics known as the uncertainty principle that is "not possible to
determine the position and momentum of an object carefully at the same time, which
can determined is the probability of finding an electron at a certain distance from the
nucleus. "

Region of space around the nucleus with the probability to gain electrons called
orbitals. The shape and the orbital energy levels formulated by Erwin Schrodinger
Schrodinger.Erwin solve an equation to obtain the wave function to describe the limit of
possible discovery of electrons in three dimensions.

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Schrodinger equation

x, y and z = position in three dimensions

Y = wave function
m = mass
ђ = h/2p where h = plank constant and p =
3.14
E = total energy
V = potential energy
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Atom model with the orbital path of electrons is called a model of modern atomic or
quantum mechanical atom model which is valid until today, as shown in the picture
below. Electron cloud around the nucleus showed the probability of electrons.Describes
the electron orbital energy levels. Orbitals with energy levels of the same or nearly the
same shall form a sub-skin. Some sub-skin combine to form the skin. Thus, the skin
consists of several sub-skin and consists of several orbital subkulit. Although the skin is
the same position but not necessarily the same orbital position. 

Typical atomic model of electron motion wave mechanics wave properties, so the
trajectory (orbit) is not stationary like the Bohr model, but following the completion of
the square wave function which is called the orbital (three-dimensional shape of the
probability of finding an electron with the most certain circumstances in an atom). The
shape and size of the orbitals depends on the price of the three quantum
numbers. (Electrons that occupy the orbital quantum number is expressed in it). The
position as far as 0.529 electron from the nucleus H Armstrong by Bohr instead of
something definite, but may be the greatest chance of finding an electron.

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 Elementary Particles
A. Properties of Elementary Particles
Elementary particle mass expressed in atomic mass units (SMA),
where 1 sma = 1,66 x 10-24 grams. While the elementary particle
charge is expressed as the charge relative to the electron charge
(e), where a charge of 1 electron = e = -1,60 x 10-19 coloumb.

Charge of 1 proton = 1 electron charge, but the sign is

different. Mass of 1 proton = mass of a neutron, each 1
sma. Electron mass is smaller than the mass of protons or
neutrons.

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B. Atomic Structure
Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley (1887-1915) in 1913 found that the amount of positive
charge within the nucleus is characteristic of each element.

In writing atomic mass number (A) written at top left, while the atomic number (Z) is
written in the lower left of the symbol element.

Z X = pX
A p+n description:
X = element symbol
A = mass number
Z = atomic number

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 for ions (positively or negatively charged atoms) then the ion notation, the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons are:

Notation Positive Ions Negative ions

The number of protons (p) p=Z p=Z

The number of neutrons (n) n=A–Z n=A–Z
The number of electrons (e) e=p-q e=p+r

Note:
# For neutral atoms, the number of protons = number of electrons
# For positive ions, the number of protons (positive charge) >
electrons (negative charge)
# For negative ions, the number of electrons (negative charge) >
protons (positive charge)

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C. Isotopes, Isobar, and Isoton

1. Isotope
Isotopes are elements that have similar atomic numbers the
same but have differentatomic mass. Example : 8O16 , 8O17 , 8O18

2. Isobar
Isobar is the atoms of different elements (having a different atomic number), but has
the same mass number. Example : 6C14 with 7N14 , 11Na24 with 12Mg24

3. Isoton
Isoton are atoms of different elements (having a different atomic number), but has
thesame number of neutrons. Example : 6C13 with 7N14 , 15P31 with 16S32

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1.2 Periodic System of Elements
Scientists have tried to make the grouping so that the elements are well
ordered. The culmination of these efforts is to create a table element called
the periodic table of elements. This element of the periodic system contains
lots of information about the properties of elements, so as
to assist in studying the elements of which nownumbered no
less dari118, which include elements of natural and synthetic elements.

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Development of Periodic Table of Elements
 A. L. Lavoisier: metal & non-metallic element.
 J. Dalton: different elements of different atomic mass.
 J. W. Dobereiner: Triade Dobereiner.
 J. A. K. Newlands: Hk. Octave Newlands.
 Begeyer de Chancourtois: telluric screw.
 Lothar Meyer: Graph of atomic molar
volume vs atomic masses are periodic.

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Development of Periodic Table of Elements
 Dimitri Mendeleev: The elements in any order
of increasing atomic mass. The elements that are similar to put a party.
 Moseley: (refine Mendeleev table): The elements in any order
of increasing atomicnumber (= number of protons).
 Long form Periodic Table present = developments that enhanced the
periodic table Mendeleev Moseley.

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Long form Periodic Table

 Rows = periods (= skin): 1 to 7
- Short Period: 1, 2, 3
- Long Period: 4, 5, 6, 7
 Column = class.
- Primary (A): sd IA VIIIA
- Transition (B): sd VIIIB IB
>> Outside
>> In

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 Periodic System of Elements
 Elements Periodic properties
The nature of metal:
tends to weaken

tend to become stronger

 Atomic radius:
tend to be smaller

tend to be greater

- The radius of positive ion < atomic radius.

- The radius of the negative ion
> atom radius.

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 Periodic System of Elements

 Ionization Energy (Ionization Potential).
Large atomic radius → small EI.
 Electron affinity.
Atomic radius large → small AE.
 Electronegatifity
tend to be greater

tend to be smaller

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 Periodic System of Elements

Magnetic properties (Stern-
Gerlach experiment):
↑↓e pairs → diamagnetik.
↑unpaired e → paramagnetic.

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Thank you for your
attention

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