High Voltage Generators and

Rectification Systems

S C Bansal
Department of Radio-diagnosis & Imaging,
P G I M E R, Chandigarh.
 Electricity
Means the flow of current and is measured
in amperes.
Electric Current Types:
Direct Current
Alternating Current
 Direct Current
Direct Current is the type provided by a battery. It is
the flow of electricity in one direction along
conductors which carry it in complete circuits.
Important feature is that it does not vary with time
and change its direction.

Battery

DC

A Switch A Time
 Alternating Current

It varies in magnitude continuously and changes

direction periodically i.e. electricity swings back
and forth in a circuit along the conductors which
carry it.
+v
e
Current Changing Direction

Time

-ve
Alternating current can be produced by rotating a coil of
wire in a magnetic field. The coil has induced in it an
electromotive force (emf) which makes the current flow
in a complete circuit. This coil rotates at a uniform rate in
its magnetic field and the external circuit in which current
can be made to flow by means of emf generated in the
coil as in graph current against time scale.

Magnetic
Field

N Coil S
 Graph showing current against time scale
+ve
Max
+ve

Current Changing
b

Direction a c e

Tim
e
d
Max
-ve
-ve

The current grows from zero (i.e. a) to a max value b again back to
zero (i.e. c), then changes direction.
During the period a c on the time axis when the current is moving in
one direction and wave is above the horizontal axis it is positive.
During the period ce when the current has reversed its direction and
wave is shown below horizontal axis it is negative, and this wave like
presentation is called AC of sine wave form.
 Types of Alternating Current
It is of two types
– Single phase AC
– Poly-phase AC

IN single phase AC, only one coil rotates in the magnetic

field e.g. 240 volt.
In polyphase AC or three phase AC, 3 coils are made to
rotate simultaneously by placing at equidistance from
each other in front of the magnets which will produce
three separate supplies of alternating current. The
voltage provided by these separate sources of electricity
are out of phase e.g. 415Volt
 360o A
A
N C S
B B
240o
120o

Poly phase alternating current

 Methods of distribution of
electricity
Once the electricity is generated, it has to be
distributed.
2 methods in which the windings of the circuit
containing a polyphase generator can be
connected are as below:
– Star type 3 phase circuit or Wye type
– Delta type
Star Type or Wye Type Circuit
Generally for each coil of three phase AC circuit two
wires are required and in total 6 wires are needed for 3
coils for use in circuit to keep them apart.

Coil A

Coil B Coil C

This type of method would result in a poor economy and

great wastage. So alternative to this is by having 4 wires
in place of 6 wires as shown next.
 1

2
I
II
N

III

In this star connection coils I, II and III are

connected to a common point N known as neutral
cable whereas 1,2 and 3 are lines of supply. This is
a standard method of supply.
 Delta Connection 3 phase
circuit
The three coils or phases are connected in such a way as they
The three coils or phases are connected in such a way as they
look like a triangle or similar to Greek letter delta.

Adv. Of Wye connection over Delta connection:

• Machinery is cheaper.
• Less stress and liability to break down in regard to
insulation.
• Can supply two different voltage as per need of different
types of user, e.g. single phase for domestic user and
three phase for industrial user or large installations.
 Rectification
Conversion of alternating current into unidirectional
pulsating direct current is called rectification.
A device which converts AC into pulsating DC is called
rectifier.
A rectifier can be valve type or vacuum type or it can
be solid state/semiconductor/metallic type rectifier.
X-Ray tube is a sort of valve type rectifier or diode
rectifier as it has two electrodes and allows the current
to flow in one direction only.
 Thermionic diode valves:

An evacuated tube with two electrodes in it is called a

thermionic diode valve. Hence it is like an Xray tube having:

A glass envelope enclosing a vacuum.

Two electrodes within the glass envelope, one of which is a

heated filament.

The filament of a valve is heated by a step down transformer

and emits electrons which are drawn across to the anode when
a potential difference is applied across both the electrodes and
the valve passes current.
Functioning of a diode valve:

If the valve is connected in a complete circuit such

that cathode is –ve with respect to anode electrons are
drawn towards the anode and valve passes current. If
the cathode is positive with respect to anode, no
electrons will be drawn across the valve and it blocks the
current thus the supply of current to X-ray tube is
unidirectional only. But these diode valves which were
used earlier are replaced with solid state rectifiers.
Hence, its function is to pass current in one direction
only and to block any reversal flow.
 Solid state rectifier

As the name solid state implies, conduction takes

place by electron travel through solid materials as
opposed to electron flow through a vacuum in a
valve.
Solid materials used are semi-conductors
whose characteristics place them midway between
metals, which are conductors of electricity and non-
metals, which mostly are non-conductor of
electricity and are insulators. Semiconductors can
be made either to conduct or insulate. Selenium,
Silicon or Germanium are some commonly used
semiconductors to rectify the high tension for an X-
ray tube in place of vacuum diodes.
 N types and P types
semiconductors
A semiconductor or solid state rectifier is made of
two layers of material. One of these layers is a material
which has an excess of free electron i.e. excess of
negative charge is called N type material. Examples of N
type semiconductor is Silicon or Germanium with minute
amount of Phosphorus as impurity added to each
element called “Donor impurity”, Second layer called P
type semiconductor has a deficiency of electrons or
excess of positive charge or holes. These are made of
silicon or germanium when Boron or Indium is added as
impurity called acceptor impurity.
 Construction of Solid State
Rectifier
It is formed by joining p type and
N type semiconductors together called
PN Junction. Thus electrons flow
easily from the N type layer towards P
type layer i.e. from Donor towards +
Acceptor but not in opposite direction
from P towards N type. Hence uni- + N P
direction flow of current is obtained +
and rectification is done.
The block to the current in +
reverse direction occurs at the +
junctions between the two materials N
type and P type i.e. the region where
the barrier exists is very thin, hence it
is also called junction diode or barrier Junction or Barrier Layer
layer rectifier.
Advantage of Solid State Rectifier over
diode valve:
– Longer life.
– No filament heating.
– More robust.
– Smaller in size.
– More compact, i.e. occupy less space, better
for mobile units.
Now a days Silicon rectifiers are commonly used
compared to Selenium rectifiers as:
Silicon rectifiers have lower forward voltage drop of the
order 200v compared to 18-20 KV.
High resistance to reverse current.
Ability to work at higher temperature, approx. 200oC
compared to 80oC.
Due to higher resistance, lesser number of barrier layers
are required.
Smaller in size and ability to withstand higher inverse
voltage.
 High Tension Generators
The high tension transformer together with other components such
as rectifiers is called a High Tension Generator .

Various types of HT generators varying from simple to complex

ones are as below.
The self rectified HT Circuits (Single pulse generators)
Half wave rectified circuits (Single Pulse).
Single phase full wave rectified circuits (Two Pulse).
Three phase full wave rectified circuits (Six Pulse).
Three phase 12 pulse generators.
High frequency generators.
Battery powered generators.
Capacitor discharged generators.
Falling load generators.
 Rating of X-Ray generators:
The essential function of HT generators in x-ray equipment is to provide such
power as is needed by the x ray tube to which they are connected. So
power output of generator is very important specification and it is expressed
in Watts- unit of power or Kilowatts.
But rating of HT generator is evaluated when the unit is under load and
formula involve multiplying Kilovolts and the milliamperes which constitutes
the load as below:
In case of 3 phase generator:
KW = KV × mA
1000
In case of single phase generator:
KW = 0.7×KV×mA
1000
(0.7 is the modification factor for single phase generator due to pulsating
voltage wave form compared to ripple voltage in three phase generators.
Generators may be compared by means of their Kilowatt ratings and
following points must be noted:

manufacturer states the highest milliampereage which the generator

can produce (e.g. 500mA, 800mA or 1000mA)

Manufacturer states the maximum Kilovoltage which the generator

can provide e.g. 125KV or 150 KV.

These maximum volues of the Kilo voltage and milliamperage cannot

be simultaneously obtained. If highest KV is used, then the maximum
mA available will be lower than the highest value stated for the
generator. Similarly if the highest mA is to be used the available KV
is lower than the maximum voltage output given for the generator.
e.g. a generator meant for 1000 mA and 150KV might in practice
provide as follows:
– 1000mA at 80Kv (80KW)
– 800mA at 100Kv (80KW)
– 500mA at 150 Kv (75KW)
 Kilowatt rating
Kilowatt rating for generators are determined
under load and it is convenient to test and
state the ratings at the voltage level of 100
KV e.g. for generator giving 800mA at
100KV then KW rating is:

800×100 = 80 KW (in case of three phase)

1000
 Self Rectified H T Generator
It is a HT generator in which X-Ray tube is directly
connected to the secondary winding of the HT
transformer. Thus X-Ray tube itself behaves like a
rectifier and allows the current to flow in one
direction, hence called self rectified circuit.

SHT

PHT mA X-Ray
Tube
 Applications:
Portable / Low power mobile
units and dental units.
Advantages:
Small in size.
Simple design.
Light in weight.
Less cost.
Simple to operate.
 Limitations +ve

X Ray Tube Current

The peak value which the tube Average
current reaches during the Tube Current C
B
cycle is 3 times of the average A Tim
value. e.g. peak current = 3* e
Average current. 1/00
Sec
1/50
-ve sec
The peak voltage across the X- +ve
Ray tube during the half cycle
when the tube passes current

Primary of HT
Transformer
and produces X-Rays is not the
same as during the half cycle B C
when the tube does not pass A Time
current and does not produces 1/2
Cycle
X-Rays.
1 Cycle
-ve
 Limitations (contd)
The rating of a given X-ray tube is more
limited when the tube is placed in a self
rectified circuit than when it is used in any
other type of HT generator.
There is greater strain on cable used to
connect the X-ray tube to the HT
transformer in self rectified circuits
compared to other rectification systems.
Half Wave Rectified Generators:
V2

SHT

PHT mA X-Ray
Tube

V1
Single Phase Full Wave Rectified
H T Generator:

X C
In this circuit both
R R
half cycles of AC 1 4
are used to A B
produce X-Rays by PHT mA

employing a bridge R R
of four rectifiers as 3 D 2

shown:
Y

X-Ray Tube
Graph Showing Single Phase Two Pulse AC Cycle
+v
e When x –ve, y+ve
HT Transformer Voltage
C→R1→XT→B→R2→D

B C
A Time
When y –ve, x+ve
D→R3→A→XT→B→R4→C

-ve
+v
e
+ve
X ray Tube Voltage

X Ray Tube Current

Average Tube
B C Current
A Time B C
A Tim
e

-ve

-ve
Advantages of Single phase full
wave HT generator:

Less difference in Average and peak current. Peak current is 1 ½

times of the average current as mA meter always measure average
current hence less difference in the temperature rise in the focal
spot and actual output of X-ray tube resulting into higher rating of
the X-ray tube.
No difference in voltage as X-Ray tube passing current during both
the halves of AC cycle and voltage during both halves is alike.
Short exposure time: for conventional exposure switching minimum
duration for single pulse is 1/100 sec, as we are getting 100 half
waves in 50 cycles in 1 sec.
Higher output than self or half wave rectified circuits.
Less strain on HT cables and less insulation cost.
 Limitations
Costly.
More complex.
Heavier, not easy to transport.
Larger in size.
Ripple factor is 100% as it is pulsating X-
Ray beam with voltage variation between
zero to peak and again to zero.
 Three phase full wave 6 pulse generators.

• In these generators all the 3

phases of electric supply of AC
generator are utilized by
connecting six rectifiers (two each)
to all the different phases of
secondary HT transformers.
• Each of the primary windings of
HT transformer draws its voltage
from a different phase means at
any given instant of time the
voltage in the primary windings of
the HT transformer are different
from each other. Similarly the
voltages in the secondary
windings are different from each
other.

• Winding A and B works as a system with R2, R4, R1, R5

• Winding B and C works as a system with R1, R6, R3, R4
• Winding A and C work as a system with R2, R6, R3, R5
 Voltage in respective coils and x-ray
tubes.
At any instant of time, the voltage in all coils is not the same i.e.
they are out of step with each other, so two pairs which supply the tube
are those pairs which have highest voltage in comparison to 3rd pair.
Thus voltage across x-ray tube never falls to zero and takes the form of
ripples. This is 20%.

Since the voltage in the three

windings rise and fall one after the
other as time goes by, it is not
always the same pair of winding,
but from successive combination of
pairs that the x-ray tube obtains its
voltage. Each winding in turn falls
into a period of inactivity as the
voltage in it drops down towards
the zero point in the cycle.
Features of a three phase high tension
generator.

Voltage wave forms: on the circuits the alternating voltage from the
three phases of mains supply are fed into a triple high tension
transformer. Here the voltage exists on the secondary winding as
three phases of alternating voltage stepped up to the peak values
required by the x-ray tube in operation. During the period of time
occupied by one full cycle of voltage changes, the x-ray tube has six
half waves of useful voltage applied to it..
So the voltage across the x-ray tube takes the rippling form and
varies from the maximum in the cycle to some value less than the
maximum but it does not fall all the way to zero. i.e. does not fall
below 80% of the peak value. Hence there is 20% ripple
theoretically its value is 13.5%.
This ripple can be reduced further by connecting 12 banks of
rectifiers for the two sets of transformer windings on the HT side of
the generator. One set is star (Wye) connected and one set is delta
connected (instead of two wyes).
This delta wye configuration
is shown as : PHT

This circuit arrangement

results in 12 half waves of
voltage for the x-ray tube
during the period of time
occupied by one complete
cycle of mains alternation. SHT
The ripple after the tube
voltage is very small-
theoretically it is about 3.5%
i.e. better than 13.5% of six
rectifier units.

3 Phase 12 Rectifier Circuit

Average and peak currents:
In a three phase HT generator circuit there is a
difference between the average milliamperage during the
cycle (read by milliammeter) and the peak value which is
reached. But is narrow as compared to single phase half
wave rectified circuit where peak is about 3 times and in
single phase full wave rectified circuit it is about 11/2
times of the average current. And this difference
between peak and average value of current is further
reduced in 12 rectifier circuit than the six rectifier circuit
as average tube current is close to the peak value of the
current.
 X-Ray tube rating:

comparison with single phase.

on shorter exposures the x-ray tube has a higher exposure rating on the three
phase generator i.e. less than 0.5sec.
on exposure longer than 0.5sec. X-ray tube has a lower rating in 3 phase
generator.
at 0.5 second of exposure the rating for the two circuits is the same.
In single phase rms=peak/√2 or rms = 0.71 peak.
In three phase rms = 0.95 peak.
Hence on long exposure the total heat input to the x-ray tube is shorter
resulting into lower tube rating.
Shortest available exposure times in 3 phase circuits for each cycle there are
six pulses.
So on a 50cps supply number of pulses will be 50×6=300 pulses in one sec,
and duration of one pulse is 1/300=0.003 sec.
So minimum available exposure time for one half wave is the shortest
exposure time in milliseconds compared with 0.001 sec of a single phase
generator.
Application of three phase generator circuits:
Useful in procedures requiring shortest or repetitive exposures e.g.
angiography or serial radiography.
Advantages:
As load is distributed equally overall three phases of the supply
when the x-ray exposure is made it can draw larger amounts of
power. Hence three phase HT generators can supply higher mA e.g.
1000-1200mA for the x-ray tube than single phase generators.
A greater quantity of X ray is produced per KV and mA of the control
settings resulting into decrease in exposure time, thus reducing risk
of motional unsharpness. E.g. GI tract studies or in cardiac study.
With conventional switching minimum exp time of .003 sec is
available as compared to single phase generators.
Disadvantages of three phase
generators :
More expensive.
More complex in circuitry
Larger and occupy more space.
Choice of three phase generator

50KW to 70KW: There are six pulse generators with max mA upto
700 and maximum KV upto 150V. The minimum exposure time is
usually 0.01 sec and fastest repetition rate upto 8 exp/sec. useful for
general radiography and for some angiography – peripheral and
abdominal.
70KW to 100KW: There are 12 pulse generators with mA upto
1000-1250 and KV 150. Shortest exposure time is 0.003 sec. rate of
repetition not less than 8 exp/sec. useful in angiography studies
undertaken with serial film changers. Also useful in busy trauma
centers and ortho departments.
150KW-200KW: these are 12 pulse with mA 1200 at KV 150 as
voltage. Shortest exposure are down to 0.001 sec even upto
0.0001 second and repetition rate not less than 80 films/sec. useful
in cine radiography.
 Capacitor Discharge Generators:
They are used with cold cathode
field emission x-ray tubes which
have no filament. Electrons are
drawn off the points of multiple Field
needle like cathodes by a strong Emission
S
electric field. The electric field is
supplied by an array of X ray
capacitors wired together in Tube
both series and parallel. In a
complex circuit as shown
represented with a single
capacitor (c). X rays

• The capacitors are discharged through the field emission x-ray tube and by
closing the switch (s) when capacitors are fully charged- X rays will be
produced.
• A capacitor discharge circuit may take upto 2 minutes to reach full charge
and then discharge in a few nanno seconds.
 Main advantage:
They deliver a relatively large amount of
power (e.g. 350 KV) in a extremely short
burst.
Exp. Times are so short they can freeze
the motion of a bullet in flight.
 Battery Powered Generators:

Some portable x-ray machines employ a series

of batteries to generate the high voltage and
filament currents and are useful to operate in
areas where the electric supply is inadequate for
the conventional generators. Each cell in the
battery pack supplies potential difference of 1.5
volts, so thousands of cells are required to
provide high voltages used in diagnostic
radiology.
The KV selector in H V Circuit regulate the mA Selector
potential difference across the tube by
adding or subtracting batteries from the
series. The filament current is adjusted by
X ray Tube
variable resistor in the filament circuit.
The batteries must be recharged periodically
for numerous x-ray exposures.
S

KV Selector
 Falling load generators.

These are usually specially designed three

phased or high frequency generators. They take
full advantage of the current loading capacity of
the X-ray tube by beginning the exposure with a
high milliamperage and then allows it to fall
during the exposure. This can be achieved with
a constant potential circuit. It requires that both
mA and KV be regulated independently. These
must be used with automatic exposure controls
or rely on mAs timer instead of independent mA
and time controls.
Advantage :
Shorter times in heavy load situations and simpler
operations.
Disadvantage :
Can shorten x-ray tube life considerably as they use
higher mA settings, thus causing the filament to wear out
more quickly.
Function with mA unknown to the operator so it is
impossible for the operator to set the correct time to
achieve the desired mAs, therefore, required to be used
with automatic exposure controls or rely on mAs timer
instead of independent mA and timer controls.
High Frequency Generator: The newest development
in high voltage generator design uses a high frequency
circuit in which full wave rectified power at 50Hz is
converted to a higher frequency, usually 500 to 5000Hz.
Advantages of HF Generators
its small size, can be placed within the x-ray tube housing, produce a
nearly constant voltage waveform resulting into improved quality at lower
patient dose. Portable x ray imaging systems were the first to use this
technology, but now a days all stationary x-ray imaging systems use high
frequency voltage generation.

High frequency voltage generator uses inverter circuits. Which are high
speed switches or choppers, converting DC into a series of square pulses.

Real Advantage is they are much smaller, less costly and more efficient
than three phase circuits.
 Voltage ripple
it is the variation between the peak voltage and the minimum voltage in the
circuit.
% ripple is % variation between the maximum and minimum voltage in the
circuit.

The most efficient method of x-ray production is voltage waveform with

lowest ripple.
Low ripple generators provide more capacity and flexibility than those with
single phase systems.
Thank You!