Chapter 8: New Energy

Sources

Water
Hydrogen
Fuel Cells
Electrochemical Cells
Batteries
Photovoltaics
Sun
8-1
 Water
2 H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)

Experiment shows that this reaction gives off 572

kJ – highly exothermic reaction.
reaction

For one mole of H2(g):

H2(g) + ½ O2(g) 2 H2O(l) + 286 kJ

Equivalent to releasing 143 kJ per gram of H.

H
- coal: 30 kJ/g; octane:
octane 46 kJ/g; CH4: 54 kJ/g 8-2
 Energy Differences in the
H2 - O2 - H2O System

H2(g) + ½ O2(g)

(Energy evolved) (Energy absorbed)

- 286 kJ + 286 kJ

H2O(l)
Figure 8.1 8-3
 Hydrogen
Hydrogen has the potential of being a powerful
energy source.

On a per gram basis, H has the highest heat of

combustion of any known substance.

It is used, along with oxygen, to launch the

space shuttle and rockets.

Using it as a fuel to power motor vehicles would

produce only water vapor.
vapor
8-4
 Hydrogen
H is the most plentiful element in the universe.
- over 93% of all atoms are H atoms.
- essentially all of it is tied up in chemical
compounds.
compounds

It is too reactive to exist for long in its diatomic

form, H2, in the presence of other elements and
compounds that make up the atmosphere and
Earth’s crust.

It is therefore necessary to extract H from H-

containing compounds, which requires energy.
8-5
 Hydrogen
Several Sources of H2:
1. Gasification of coal.

2. Steam reforming of methane in natural gas.

- (major source of H2)

3. Electrolysis of water. (if an electric current

is passed through water, O2 is produced at
one electrode (anode)
anode and H2 is produced at
the other electrode (cathode).
cathode

4. Reaction of metals with acids.

8-6
 Electrolysis
Electrolysis:
Electrolysis the passage of a direct electric
current of sufficient voltage causes an
otherwise non-spontaneous reaction to
occur.

For water:
water
- requires 286 kJ of energy (burning fossil
fuels).
- breaks O-H bonds in water.
- generates twice the volume of H2 as O2.
8-7
The Electrolysis
of Water

Figure 8.2 8-8

 The Hydrogen Economy
We face significant problems in storing and
transporting hydrogen.
- it occupies a very large volume,
volume about 12 L /
gram at normal temperature and pressure.
- large heavy walled containers are required for
storage and transportation of gaseous H2.

If converting H to the liquid state, it must be

cooled to - 253 °C before it liquefies. It would
require low temperatures and high costs.
costs
8-9
 The Hydrogen Economy
Alternatives have been proposed for storing H2.
Absorbing gaseous H2 on a solid such as activated
carbon.
A different approach involves reacting H2 with
certain metals to produce compounds called
metal hydrides.
hydrides
- when such hydrides are reacted with H2O,
they produce H2 which can be burned in the
usual fashion.
MgH2(s) + 2 H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2 H2(g)
8 - 10
 Fuel Cells
Fuel cells:
cells the chemical energy of a fuel is
converted directly into electricity without
burning the fuel.
- invented in 1839 and used extensively since
the US space program began in the 1960s.
Functions somewhat like a conventional battery,
battery
but fuel cells use an external constant supply of
fuel such as H2.

Transfer of electrons by 2 half-reactions:

Oxidation – a reactant loses electrons.
Reduction – another reactant gains electrons.
8 - 11
 Fuel Cells
The H2 / O2 fuel cell uses the net reaction:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
- produces electricity and H2O on space flights.

There is a transfer of electrons from H2 to O2.

- oxidation can not occur alone, must be paired
with a reduction reaction.

To produce electricity, the 2 half-reactions must

be connected.
connected
- accomplished by using electrodes – electrical
conductors placed in the cell as sites for
chemical reaction. 8 - 12
 Fuel Cells
Anode – The electrode at which the oxidation
half-reaction takes place.
Cathode – The electrode at which the reduction
half-reaction takes place.

The electrons flowing from the anode to the

cathode of a fuel cell can be used to do work.
work

The difference in electrode potential is the

voltage of the cell and measured in volts (V).
- larger the difference : higher the voltage

The rate at which the electrons flow is called the

current,
current and it is measured in amperes (amps). 8 - 13
8 - 13
Figure 8.4 8 - 14
 PEM Fuel Cells

Frequently stacked to
achieve useful amounts
of electricity.

Compact, light, and do

not require caustic
electrolytes like KOH.
- used in electric vehicles.
vehicles

Page 312 8 - 15
An Overview of Electrochemical Cells
There are two types of electrochemical cells based
upon the general thermodynamic nature of the reaction:
1) An electrochemical cell uses a spontaneous reaction to
generate electrical energy. The reacting system does
work on the surroundings.
- All batteries.
2) An electrolytic cell uses electrical energy to drive a
non-spontaneous reaction, the surroundings do work on
the reacting system.

All electrochemical cells have several common features:

1) They have two electrodes: Anode and Cathode
2) The electrodes are dipped into an electrolyte,
electrolyte a
solution that contains a mixture of ions and will
conduct electricity. 8 - 16
 Dry Cells
A Zn case is the anode, in contact with a moist
paste of ZnCl2 and NH4Cl, and a layer of MnO2.
A carbon rod (graphite) cathode is in contact
with the metal cap on top of the cell.

Oxidation half-reaction:
half-reaction (at the anode)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-

Reduction half-reaction:
half-reaction (at the cathode)
2 NH4+ (aq) + 2 MnO2(s) + 2 e- →
Mn2O3(s) + 2 NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
8 - 17
Dry Cells

8 - 18
 The Alkaline Dry Cell
Alkaline Battery:
Battery NH4Cl is replaced with KOH or
NaOH. The Zn anode corrodes less under
alkaline conditions and the cell voltage is more
constant because the net reaction involves
only condensed-phase species.

Oxidation half-reaction:
half-reaction
Zn(s) + 2 OH-(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s) + 2 e-

Reduction half-reaction:
half-reaction
2 MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2 e- → Mn2O3(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
8 - 19
 The Alkaline Dry Cell

Figure 8.7 8 - 20
 The Alkaline Dry Cell
The voltage produced by this cell is 1.54 volts.
volts
- depends primarily on which elements and
compounds are participating in the reaction.

It does not depend on:on

- the overall size of the cell.
- the amount of material that it contains.
- the size of the electrodes.

On the other hand, the current or electron flow

does depend on the size of the cell.
8 - 21
 Electrochemical Cells
Type Voltage Rechargeable?

Dry cell 1.5 No

Alkaline 1.54 No
Mercury 1.3 No
Li – I 2.8 No
Lead Storage 2.0 Yes
Ni – Cd 1.46 Yes

Table 8.1 8 - 22
 The Lead Storage Battery
This battery is rechargeable as long as the PbSO4
formed adheres to the electrode surfaces.
- extends their lifetimes and increases their
cost-effectiveness.
- consists of 6 cells, each generating 2.0 V for a
total of 12.0 V.
V

Oxidation half-reaction:
half-reaction (anode)
Pb(s) + SO42- (aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2 e-

Reduction half-reaction:
half-reaction (cathode)
PbO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2 e- → PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l)
8 - 23
 The Lead Storage Battery
Removable Cap

H2SO4 electrolyte

Negative plates (lead

grills filled with
spongy lead)
Positive plates (lead grills
filled with PbO2)
Figure 8.8 8 - 24
Mercury or Silver Batteries

8 - 25
Lithium Battery

Nickel-Cadmium
(Nicad) Battery

Li-I is used to power

cardiac pacemakers.
- as long as 10 years
before it needs to be
replaced.
8 - 26
 Batteries
Most batteries convert chemical energy into
electrical energy with an efficiency of ~ 90%.
90%

Considerable energy is required to manufacture

electrochemical cells.
- metals and minerals have to be mined and
processed.
- other components have to be manufactured
and assembled.

90% of all batteries sold each year in the US are

single-use batteries that find their way into
landfills.
8 - 27
 Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic Energy Conversion - convert solar
energy directly into electricity without
intermediate conversion to heat.
- also called Solar Cells.
Cells
- less than 0.5% of the power generated in the
US comes directly from the Sun.
- light induces a flow of electrons from a higher
electrical potential (voltage) to one of lower
voltage.
Chief components of the cells are semiconductors,
semiconductors
wafers of silicon with gallium or arsenic.
arsenic
- materials that do not normally conduct
electricity well, but do so under certain
conditions. 8 - 28
 Bonding in Silicon

Silicon Electrons
Atoms
Figure 8.12a 8 - 29
 Photon-Induced Release of a
Bonding Electron
Photon

Freed
Positive Electron
Hole

Figure 8.12b 8 - 30
 Photovoltaic Cells
The energy required for Si to release an electron
from a bond is 1.8 x 10 -19 J / photon.
photon
- radiation with a wavelength of 1100 nm.
nm
- visible sunlight has more than enough energy.

The starting materials from which silicon is

extracted are cheap and abundant.
- purifying it to the appropriate level (99.999%)
99.999% is
fairly expensive.
- theoretical efficiency of 28%.
28%
- experimental efficiencies between 10% and 20%
have been achieved.
8 - 31
 Semiconductors
Doping – intentionally introducing about 1 ppm
of other elements into the Si. (Ga or As)
As
- differ from Si by one outer electron.

n-type – Si doped with As. Its electrical

conductivity is due to negative carriers (e-).

p-type – Si doped with Ga. An electronic

vacancy or “hole” is introduced. Its electrical
conductivity is due to positive carriers (holes).
holes

Both types of doping increases the conductivity

of the silicon.
- less energy needed to get e- or holes moving.
8 - 32
 Semiconductors

n-type p-type

As-doped Ga-doped

Figure 8.13a Figure 8.13b 8 - 33

 Photovoltaic Cells
“Sandwiches”
Sandwiches of n-type and p-type
semiconductors are used in transistors and
many of the other miniaturized electronic
devices.
- central to the direct conversion of sunlight to
electricity.

The n-type is rich in e- while the p-type

semiconductor is rich in positive holes.
holes
- e- tend to diffuse from the n-region into the p-
region. Positive holes move from the p-
region to the n-region.
- generates a voltage or potential difference.
8 - 34
 Photovoltaic Cells

Figure 8.14 8 - 35
 World Photovoltaic Shipments

Megawatts

Year
Figure 8.15 8 - 36
 Stealing the Sun
Essentially all of the energy used by the
inhabitants of the Earth is nuclear in origin.
origin

It is estimated that the Sun is about half-way

through its life cycle.
- every sec. 5 million tons is converted into E.
- expected nine-billion-year life cycle.

The primary reaction is the fusion of 4 H atoms:

atoms
4 1H 4
He + 2 +10e
- positron – has a mass equal to that of an e-,
but carries a (+) charge instead of a (-) one.
8 - 37
 Nuclear Fusion Reaction
We already have carried out fusion reactions on
the Earth by testing Hydrogen bombs.
bombs
- not really controlled fusion.

Figure 8.21 8 - 38
 Confinement Methods
The principal difficulty is one of containing the
super-hot gases.
gases

Two schemes are currently under investigation:

1) Magnetic confinement – injecting atoms of the
appropriate H isotopes into a donut-shaped
metallic chamber called a tokamak,
tokamak where they
are subjected to strong magnetic and electrical
fields.
- the e- are stripped from the atoms to produce
a new state of matter, a gas-like plasma that
consists of e- and positively charged ions.
8 - 39
 Magnetic Containment

Figure 8.22 8 - 40
 Confinement Methods

2) Inertial confinement – tiny glass spheres are

filled with deuterium or deuterium - tritium
mixtures at a pressure of several hundred atm.
- subjected to UV radiation generated by high-
energy lasers.
lasers

The hope is that under this photon bombardment,

the atoms are squeezed together tightly enough
to cause them to fuse.
8 - 41
 Inertial Confinement

Figure 8.23 8 - 42