Cytological bases of heredity

College of Medical technology Cytogenetics C.A.Ignacio

 

Mendels analysis- by representing abstract, analysishypothetical factors of inheritance by symbols to predict out comes of future crosses. Chromosome theory of inheritance Genetics + cytology = means of correlating the results of breeding experiments with the behaviour of structures that can actually be seen in the microscopes.

How chromosome number is maintained?

All living things are made up of a living material, the PROTOPLASM. The protoplasm and the boundary are organized to form a unit CELL. 2 distinct areas :
Cytoplasm major portion of the protoplasmic substance contained in a cell membrane  Nucleus dark staining body in the cytoplasm.


There are 2 kinds of organism:

Within the cytoplasm is a number of organelles with active cell function. The most important chemical constituent of the living organism are Proteins.

How did the chromosome theory take shape?



One of the first lines of evidence came from observations of how chromosomes behave during the division of the cells nucleus.

Nature of chromosomes:


 

Chromosomes vary in size, shape and number among species. It may be as short as micron or as long as 3.5 microns. Under the light microscope, staining by various chemical dyes, the nucleus consist of a dark network called CHROMATIN. In which during the process of cell division becomes organized as distinct bodies called CHROMOSOMES Chromosomes undergoing mitosis are usually rod like bodies each with a constriction at the centromere

Chromosomes a linear end to end arrangement of genes and DNA ( some proteins and RNA)

Chromosomes may be classified on the basis of their centromere

Metacentric submetacentric acrocentric

telocentric

karyotyping


The characterization of the chromosomal complement of an individual or a species, including number, form, and size of the chromosomes. A photomicrograph of chromosomes arranged according to a standard classification. To classify and array (the chromosome complement of an organism or a species) according to the arrangement, number, size, shape, or other characteristics of the chromosomes.

G-banded metaphase karyotype of a human male cell. Every chromosome pair can be identified by its banding pattern. Chromosome 1 is about 12 m long.

Asexual reproduction
Occurs when a single individual produces a new individuals identical to itself.  Simple animals  Parthenogenetic female organism can also produce offspring without fertilization


Sexual reproduction


When individual produce male and female gametes or sex cells.

Some organism and their diploid chromosome number

organism Cat chicken gorilla horse kangaroo ant Chromosome number 38 78 48 64 12 2

There are two kinds of cells:



Somatic found in skin, muscles, bones, lungs, heart and other internal organ. Diploid (2N) complete set of chromosomes


Somatic chromosomes of diploid organism are found in pairs, the members of each pair being alike is size, position of spindle attachment and in bearing genes related to some hereditary characters.

Reproductive sperm/egg. Haploid (N)

Cell division:


Important activity of all kinds of cells.



Two different types of nuclear division: mitosis and meoisis

 

In unicellular organism in order to reproduce. In multicellular organism, cell division results to growth and development. Two integrated activities Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis.

Somatic cells and reproductive cells divide by mitosis but only reproductive cells undergo meiosis

mitosis


Nuclear division associated with the division of somatic cells- cells of eukaryotic body that are cellsdestined not to become sex cells.


Produces two genetically identical daughter cells

Mitosis


Four stages:
Prophase  Metaphase  Anaphase  Telophase


The sequence of events transpiring from the close of one nuclear division to the beginning of the next one is the interphase stage.

Interphase:
G1 stage in which nucleus and cytoplasm are enlarging toward mature size. Active synthesis of RNA and Proteins takes place during this stage. S stage whereby replication of DNA and synthesis of histones (simple protein containing mainly basic amino acids occurs) G2G2- new DNA is rapidly complexed with chromosomal proteins; RNA and Protein synthesis continues
G1 and G2- gap between M and S G1, S and G2 interphase between mitosis

Prophase - onset of mitosis -Contraction into -a series of spirals chromatids

Metaphase -Nuclear spindle becomes prominent --chromosome to equatorial plane

Anaphase -Sister chromatids separate, one pair moving to each pole -Set of Vstructure

Telophase -chromosomes uncoil - Resultant nuclei

Meiosis


    

Nuclear divisions of the special cells that are destined to produce gametes (meiocyte). oogenesis/ spermatogenesis (products of meiosis) Reduction of chromosomes to the haploid number 2 cell divisions Occur during production of gametes During 1st meotic division DNA has already formed 2 twin strands at this point crossing over explains why you have the mothers eyes and fathers hair.

While some parts of this cell division process are similar to the asexual cell division process of mitosis, there are several key differences. Meiosis produces gametes, while mitosis produces other cell types. The process of meiosis halves the chromosome number from the original parent cell in the four cells it forms. It does this by having two cell divisions forming four cells, where mitosis has only one cell division forming two cells. Both processes start out with one doubling or replication of the chromosome material.

Another important way that meiosis differs from mitosis is the exchange of chromosome pieces which occurs in the first division of this process. This exchange of chromosome pieces is called crossing over. Crossing over assures that the cells produced as a result of meiosis will be different from and exhibit variations from the parent cell that produced them. This process is chiefly responsible for the variations seen in members of the same species of sexually reproducing organisms. The process of meiosis is a two step process.

 

Meiosis I reduction division Meiosis II similar to mitosis (involves 2 cell divisions) Interphase replication of chromosomes (when the chromosome first appears in Prophase II, they are double stranded) Prophase I pairing homologous chromosomes into tetrads (four chromatids on each side) in a process called synapsis crossing over occurs here (crossing genes brown hair, blue eyes) Anaphase I disjunction of chromosome (when the centromeres divide and chromosomes begin to move to opposite poles)

Steps of Meiosis


Results of Meiosis A 2n primary sex cell will divide into four specialized n cells (for reproduction) The distribution of homologous chromosomes between nuclei is random.

Interphase

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase

Final result of meiosis The process of crossing over and how it produces variation when these chromosomes are recombined in the process of fertilization.

Genetic variability:
Random assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes  Crossing over


spermatogenesis occurs in the male gonad (testes). A type of meiotic cell division in which four sperm cells are produced for each primary sex cell. The primary sex cell is spermocyte. During the division, they lose baggage and gain a tail because they need to swim to the egg. Oogenesis a type of meiotic division in which one ovum and three polar bodies are produced from each primary sex cell. Occurs in the female gonad (ovary). The primary sex cell is the oocyte. The result is one viable egg cell and 3 nonnonfunctioning polar bodies. There is an unequal cell division ovum has a large cytoplasm because it contains yolk (nutrients for embryo).

sperm (N) Adult male (2N) zygote (2N)

egg (N) adult female (2N)

How many human sperms will be formed from 40 primary spermatocytes? How many human eggs will be formed from
40 primary oocytes  40 secondary oocytes  40 ootids


Mitosis Conservative 1 CD = 2 daughter cells Chromosome number maintained No cross over Centromeres divide at anaphase Diploid/ haploid

Meiosis Generates enormous combinational variation 2 CD= 4 daughter cells Chromosome number halved in the products of meiosis At least one crossover per homologous pair centromeres do not divide at anaphase I but at anaphase II diploid

The chromosome theory of heredity



The parallel behavior of genes and chromosomes led to the concept that genes are located in chromosomes Variation and heredity Major clues mitosis is a conservative process that maintains the genetic status whereas Meiosis is a process that generates enormous combinatorial variation Phenotype of an organism is determined by gene action at cellular level

Sally and Harry fall in love. They introduce Sally's identical twin, Emily, to Harry's identical twin, Ken. Soon there is a double wedding where Sally marries Harry and Emily marries Ken. Both Sally and Emily get pregnant. They wonder "Will their babies look exactly alike?" Answer their question, and explain your reasoning.