Generalities

History of Anatomy

History of Anatomy
Anatomy = the study of the structure and function of the body. Egypt (500 B.C.) = first formal study in anatomy Earliest descriptions of anatomy in papyrus = 3000 B.C. Hippocrates first taught anatomy Greece (460 377 B.C. founder of the science of anatomy made the Hippocratic oath Wrote a book The nature of the human body is the beginning of Science.

 Aristotle = ( 384-322 BC), first used the word Anatome Greek for cutting up or taking apart Dissecare Vesalius De Humani Corpori Fabrica 1543. (
masterpiece)

Hieronymus Fabricus (1537-1619) constructed the anatomical theater at in 1594 is a teacher of William Harvey, discovered the veinous valve. William Harvey (1628) Exercitacio Anatomica De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus. Discovered the blood circulation.

 17th century, human dissection became an important feature in European medical schools. 18th and 19th centuries anatomist published impressive treatises and atlas with illustration Anatomy act of Britain was passed in Parliament 1832 legalizing the donation and receiving of human bodies for scientific studies.

Approaches to the study in Anatomy

Regional anatomy topographical anatomy Systemic anatomy study by systems, circulatory etc. Clinical anatomy emphasizes structures and functions as they relate to the practice of medicine and other health sciences.

Regional anatomy
Surface anatomy study anatomy of the living body at rest and in action. The aim is to visualize structures that lie underneath the skin and are palpable. Physical examination the clinical application of surface anatomy. Palpation the clinical technique for examining living anatomy.

System
Skeletal system Muscular system Integumentary system Nervous system Blood vascular system Lymphatics system

Anatomical Position
Normal anatomical position

 Normal anatomical position = the person is erect ( or lying supine as in erect) with the arms by the sides, palms facing forward, the legs together, and the feet directed forward.

Anatomical planes
The midsagittal median plane is vertical between the anterior midline & the posterior midline dividing the body into left and right halves. Parasagittal ( paramedian) planes are parallel to the midsagittal plane. Coronal planes = are vertical and perpendicular to the midsagittal plane

 Midcoronal plane = (frontal) plane divides the body into anterior and posterior halves. Transverse (horizontal) plane = are mutually perpendicular to the midsagittal and coronal planes, dividing the bodyby cross sections. Axis = an intersection of any 2 mutually perpendicular planes. Vertical axis = intersection between midsagittal midcoronal plane Anteroposterior axis = intersection between trtansverse and sagittal planes Bilateral axis = intersection between coronal and transverse planes.

Anatomical Planes & References

Frontal plane Median plane Sagittal plane Parasagittal plane

Anatomical positions
Superficial Superior Inferior Posterior Anterior (Ventral) Caudal (tail)

Anatomical adjectives
Anterior/posterior
Anterior (ventral), towards the front aspect of the body Posterior(dorsal), towards the back aspect of the body

Proximal/distal
Proximal = close to the median or near the origin of a structure Distal = away from the origin of a structure

External/internal
External (superficial) = is close to the surface of the body. Internal (deep) = is close to the center of the body.

Superior/ inferior
- Superior (cephalad, craniad, cephalic, rostral) towards the head Inferior (caudad, caudal) towards the tail or feet.

 Medial / lateral
Median = in the midsagittal plane Medial = towards the median. Lateral = away from the median

Central / peripheral
Central = toward the center of mass of body Peripheral = away from the center of mass of the body

Prone / supine
Prone = ventral surface down. Supine = ventral surface up

Anatomic movements
Flexion / extension = usually occurs in the midsagittal or parasagittal plane.
Flexion = brings primitively ventral surfaces together.
Plantar flexion = downward flexion of foot at the ankle joint. Dorsiflexion = upward flexion (extension) of foot at ankle joint. Radial deviation (flexion), abduction of the hand at the wrist joint. Ulnar deviation (flexion), adduction of hand at the wrist joint.

Extension = away from the ventral surface ( straightening the leg at the knee joint).

Abduction / adduction = occurs in the midcoronal plane

Abduction (lateral flexion), movement away from the median plane. Adduction , movement towards the median, towards the middle finger, or toward the second toe.

Medial rotation / lateral rotation =occurs about a line by the

intersection of the coronal and or parasagittal plane sagittal)
Medial rotation = movement of a ventral surface towards the median plane. Lateral rotation = movement of a ventral surface away from the median plane

 Elevation / depression
Elevation, raises or moves a structure cephalad (shoulder shrug) Depression, lowers or moves a structure caudally (directing the eye downward)

Protraction / retraction
Protraction = Moves a structure anterior (jutting out of the jaw) Retraction = moves a structure towards the median (withdrawing a protracted tongue into the oral cavity)

Pronation/supination, refers to rotation of a specific

region.
Pronation of the arm, a medial rotation so the palm face posteriorly. Supination of the arm = a lateral rotation so that the palm faces posteriorly.

Anatomical position Adduction Abduction Flexion Extension Rotation , medial and lateral Circumduction

 Inversion / eversion
Inversion of the foot, rotates the plantar surface inwards. Eversion of the foot rotates the plantar surface laterally.

Other terms
Intorsion / extorsion of the eye, rotation about an axis thru the pupil. Opposition / reposition of the thumb, a uniquely human characteristics, refers to a rotation about a complex axis. Circumduction = a combined movement, involving flexion/ extension with abduction/adduction.

Supination Pronation Eversion Inversion

Anatomical points, Skull

Pterion the union of frontal, parietal, sphenoid and temporal bones Occiput from occipital,parietal,mastoid part of temporal Inion - Occipital protuberance Foramen magnum large opening at the base of the skull Lambda the junction of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures Coronal sutures separates frontal and parietal bone

 Sagittal sutures separates parietal bones Lambdoid sutures separates the parietal and temporal bone from occipital bone Bregma intersection of sagittal and coronal sutures. Vertex most superior point of the skull Parietal foramen found posteriorly near the sagittal sutures, transmits emissary veins.

The skin

The skin
The largest organ in the body. Consist of:
Epidermis outer superficial layer, avascular Dermis- deeper connective tss. Subcutaneous tissueloose tissue Skin ligaments retinacula cutis Deep fascia-dense

Functions:
Protection Heat regulation Sensation

Dermis
Vascularized, nourishes the epidermis Contains:
Hair follicles Arrector pili muscles, cause goose bumps Sebaceous glands Sweat glands Collagen and elastic fibers- provides skin tone Has tension lines of Langer

Appendages of the skin

Hair Nail Glands (sebaceous & sweat glands)

Cleavage lines of the skin

Skeletal system

Composition of the skeletal system,

Classification
Axial skeleton
Head = Skull bones(hyoid and cervical) Trunk = ribs, sternum, vertebrae, sacrum

Appendicular skeleton
Bones of the upper and lower limbs Pectoral bones (shoulder= clavicle, scapula) Pelvic girdle (pelvis = ilium, pubis, sacrum, coccyx)

Function
Protection for vital structures Support for the body Mechanical basis for movements Storage for salts ( calcium) A continuous supply of new blood cells.

 Cartilage resilient, semirigid connective tissue that forms parts of the skeleton where motion occurs. Has no capillary blood supply. Nutrition is thru long range diffusion. Bones: * compact bones = provide the strenght for weight bearing and the rigidity for attachment of muscles and ligaments. * spongy or cancellous bones = central mass containing: blood cells, blood platelets

 Axial skeleton Skull - Cranium 8 - Face 14 - Auditory ossicles 6 Hyoid 1 Vertebrae 26 Sternum 1 Ribs 24 Appendicular skeleton Shoulder girdles Clavicle 2 Scapula 2 Upper extremities Humerus 2 Radius 2 Ulna 2 Carpals 16 Metacarpals 10 Phalanges 28

 Pelvic girdle Hip bones Lower extremities Femur Patella Fibula Tibia Tarsals Metatarsals Phalanges Total

2 2 2 2 2 14 10 28 206

Classification of bones (shape)

Long bone = tubular,i.e., humerus Short bone = cuboidal, i.e.,tarsus & carpus Flat bones = protective.i.e., skull bones Irregular bones = various shapes and length.i.e, fascial bones Sesamoid bone = found where tendons cross the ends of long bones.i.e, patella

Accessory bones
Developed when additional ossification center appears and form extra bones are also known as wormian bones or sutural bones. Heterotopic bones = forms in soft tissue when they are not normally present.i.e., scars, riders bones in thighs of horse riders.

Bone markings:
Condyle rounded articular area, femur Crest ridge,i.e., iliac crest Epicondyle eminence superior to a condyle Facet smooth, flat, covered with cartilage, articulate with another bone Foramen passage thru a bone Fossa hollow or depressed area Groove elongated depression or furrow

Line linear elevation Malleolus rounded process Notch - indentation at the edge of bones Protuberance projection of bones Spines thorn like process Spinous process projecting spinelike process Trochanter large blunt elevation Tubercle small raised eminence Tuberosity large rounded elevation

Trauma to bones
Atrophy = reduction in size due to unuse Absorbed = mandible in dental extraction Hypertrophy = increase in size to support weight for a long period of time. Fractures = a break in a normal bone. Reduction = to approximate the broken ends of a bone to its normal position.

 Callus formation = during bone healing, a collar of fibroblast surround an injured bone and secretes collagen for its healing. Greenstick fracture = incomplete fracture due to bending of a bone. Osteoporosis = reduction in the quantity of bone, lose elasticity, becomes brittle, fractures easily. Sternal puncture = examination of the bone marrow for hematological diseases.

Bone development
Derived from mesenchyme thru:
Direct or intramembranous ossification (membranous bone)= mesenchyme model formed during embryonic period, direct ossification begins in the fetal period. Endochondral or indirect ossification (cartilaginous bone) = cartilage models of the bone form from the mesenchyme during fetal period, later bone replaces the cartilage.

 Sutures = joints of two skull bones. Joints = an articulation. It is the place of union or junction between 2 or more bones or parts of the skeleton.

Classification of joints:
Synovial = united by an articular capsule, characterized by a joint, covered by a cartilage, filled by fluids. Fibrous joints = united by fibrous tissue Plane joint = permit sliding or gliding moves in one plane(uniaxial)

 Hinge joint = moves in one plane (sagittal) around one axis. Permit flexion & extension only. Saddle joint = biaxial with opposing surface Condyloid = biaxial and allow movement in 2 planes, sagittal/coronal Ball & socket = multiaxial Pivot = uniaxial and allow rotation