Basic electronics

Electricity

Electricity is a form of energy that can produce light, heat, magnetism, chemical changes. It is the second energy source, which means that we get it changes. from the conversion of other energy source. source. One might define electricity as the separation of positive and negative electric charge. In a simple way electricity is movemet of electrons of a conductor. When the charges are separated and stationary we call this static electricity. The charging of a capacitor is an example. The separation of charge between clouds and the earth before a lightening discharge is a static electricity. When the charges are in motion we have variable electricity. electricity.

How is Electricity Produced?

Friction: static electricity from rubbing or walking across a carpet. Pressure: piezo electricity from squeezing crystals together (quartz watch) Heat: voltage produced at junction of dissimilar metals (thermocouple) Light: voltage produced from light striking photocell (solar power) Chemical: voltage produced from chemical reaction (wet or dry cell battery) Magnetism: voltage produced using electromotive induction (AC or DC generator).

The Atom
Electronics starts with electrons. Every atom contains one or more electrons. Electrons have a negative charge. The electrons of an atom can exist only within prescribed energy bands. Each shell around the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy band and is separated from adjacent shells by energy gaps, in which no electrons can exist.

The atom
Nucleus : Protons (+) and neutrons Electrons (-) rotating on orbits or energy bands which are called shells Valence electrons: Electrons that are in the orbits farther from the nucleus

The Atom

Protons

Positively charged particles located at the center, or nucleus, of each atom Small very light particles with a negative electrical charge These electrons move in orbit around the nucleus of an atom.
Do not have an electrical charge These particles add weight to the atom Located at the nucleus of an atom

Electrons

Neutrons

Electronics

Electronics is the branch of science and technology which makes use of the controlled motion of electron through different media. It is the branch of technology concerned with the behavior and movement of electrons in a vacuum, gas, semiconductor, etc. Most electronic devices today use semi-conductor components to perform semielectron control. An important concept in electronics is PN junction which is formed when two different types of semi-conductive materials are joined together. semiAn electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect the electrons or their associated fields in a desired manner consistent with the intended function of the electronic system. Some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors etc. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver or oscillator).

Difference between Electricity and Electronics

Electronics refers to the controlled motion of electrons in vacuum, gas or through nonmetal conductors (mainly semiconductors), whereas electrical refers to the flow of charge through metal conductors. Electronics is distinct from electrical, which deals with the generation, distribution, control and application of electrical power.

Conductors
A conductor is a material that can easily conduct electrical current. Most metals have electrons that can detach from their atoms and move around. These are called free electrons. The best conductors are single element material such as Gold, silver, copper, aluminum, iron, etc., All above have free electrons and are therefore good conductors of electricity. An element with 1, 2, or 3 valance electrons is a good conductor of electricity

Elements with less than 4 Electrons in their outer rings make good conductors
1 2 3

Because the Electrons are easily dislodged from their orbit and pushed to the atom next to them. (Electron flow)

Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal condition. In many materials, the electrons are tightly bound to the atoms. Due to the electrical attraction of the electrons and protons it is very difficult to get the electrons to move. Since the electrons don't move, these materials cannot conduct electricity. These material have 5 or more electrons on the valance ring. Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-element material.Wood, glass, plastic, ceramic, air, cotton etc. are good example of insulators. .

Elements with More than 4 Electrons in their outer rings make good insulators
5 7

Because the Electrons remain in the outer rings when electromotive force ( Voltage) is present.

SemiSemi-conductors

A semi-conductor is a material that is between conductor semiand insulator. An insulator in its pure state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. An element with 4 valance electrons Used to manufacture diodes and transistors Most common single-element semiconductors are Silicone, singleGermanium and Carbon. Compound semi-conductors such as Gallium Arsenide and semiSilicon carbide are also commonly used.

SemiSemi-conductors

silicon

Germanium

Electronic symbols

Resistor

Fixed

Vari able

Ground

Earth

Chassi s

Capacitor

Fixed

Variabl e

Inductor

Air

Iron

Variab le

Diode

General Purpose

Light Zener Emitting

Transistor

NPN

PNP

FET

Integrated circuit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

Special
V

Battery

Speaker

Voltmeter
A

Fuse

Antenna

Ampmeter

Reading Resistor Color Codes

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

Turn resistor so gold, silver band, or space is at right Note the color of the two left hand color bands The left most band is the left hand value digit The next band to the right is the second value digit Note the color of the third band from the left, this is the multiplier Multiply the 2 value digits by the multiplier

Reading Resistor Color Codes

Resistors in Circuits Series

Looking at the current path, if there is only one path, the components are in series.

Resistors in Circuits Series

RE ! R1  R2  Rn

Resistors in Circuits Parallel

If there is more than one way for the current to complete its path, the circuit is a parallel circuit.

Resistors in Circuits Parallel

2 2

 1

1
1

1 1
2

1
n

Resistors in Circuits Mixed

If the path for the current in a portion of the circuit is a single path, and in another portion of the circuit has multiple routes, the circuit is a mix of series and parallel.

Series

Parallel

Series

pn junction

The semi-conductor phenomena semi

Atoms in a metal allow a sea of electrons that are relatively free to move about. Semiconducting materials like Silicon Germanium and carbon have four valence electrons. Each atom is surrounded by four atoms, as such each central atom has eight electrons instead of four in its outermost orbit. This binding force which do not allow the electron to leave the orbit is known as covalent bond. Due to covalent bond no free electron is available for the flow of electric current,. Thus a crystal of Silicon or Germanium or carbon in its pure form behaves as an insulator at zero kelvin temp. At ordinary temp. the electrons have a kinetic motion due to kinetic energy.

Due to kinetic energy electrons break their covalent bond and get free and leave behind a vacancy for an electron , which called a hole Whenever a covalent bond breaks it creates an electron-hole pair. electronIn addition to electron the electric current also flow due to holes. Whenever electron from certain location moves to fill a hole, a hole is created at that particular location. In this way electrons begin to move from one place to other , which becomes a means for the flow of the current. Thus at ordinary temperature a crystal of Silicon or Germanium becomes a semi-conductor due to presence of free electrons and holes. semiIt is a semi-conductor because the number of free electrons and holes are semimuch smaller as compared to the conductor.

N-type and P-type semi-conductors Psemi(electronic device by Floyd)

A semi-conductor in its purest form is not a good conductor so it is of little semipractical value. SemiSemi-conductive materials do not conduct current well. This is because of the limited number of free electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. As such the semi-conductive material must be modified, according to our semirequirement, by increasing the number of free electrons or holes to increase its conductivity and make it useful in electronic device. This is done by adding impurities to the pure material. This process of addition of impurities in pure semi-conductive materials is semicalled doping This impurity is usually in the ratio of 1: 10 8 Impurities added to semiconductor material can either add free electrons or create a hole Two types impure semi-conductive materials n-type and p-type are added seminpfor the purpose.

N-type semi-conductor semi

To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in pure silicon, conductionpentavalent impurities atoms are added. These atoms are arsenic, phosphorus , bismuth and antimony. Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with four Silicon atoms leaving one extra electron. This extra electron becomes conduction electron because it is not attached with any atom. Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a doner atom. Silicon or Germanium doped with pentavalent atoms is an n-type nsemiconductor . N stands for the negative charge on an electron.

P-type semi-conductor semi

To increase the number of holes electrons in pure silicon, tritrivalent impurities atoms are added. These atoms are boron, indium and gallium. Each trivalent atom forms co-valent bond with four Silicon coatoms leaving one extra hole. Holes can be thought of as positive charges because the absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on the atom. Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often called an acceptor atom. Silicon or Germanium doped with trivalent atoms is an p-type psemiconductor . P stands for the positive charge on an electron.

Pn junction

One side of the bar is doped with negative material (excess electrons or n type atoms). The cathode. The other side is doped with positive material (excess holes or p type atoms). The anode n type region has more free electrons whereas p types has more holes as current carriers. In between is a no mans land called the pn Junction. pn Before the formation of pn junction, the material is neutral in terms of charge.

Barrier potential

Just after the formation of pn junction some of the electrons of n type pn region cross the junction and enter into the p region where the holes are in abundance, thereby filling the vacant site and becomes a part of the impurity atom. The impurity atom , with its three valence electrons was a neutral atom, becomes a negatively charged atom. As more and more electrons enter into the p region from the n region a layer of negative ions is formed in the p region. As the electrons in the n region leave, this converts the impurity into an immobile positive ion and a layer of positive, adjacent to the junction is formed in the n region These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region This depleted region is formed quickly and is very thin as compared to n and p regions. The potential difference across the depletion region is called the barrier potential.

The diode

When p and n region of pn junction are connected to metallic wires and enclosed in a glass or a metallic case then such a an encapsulated p-n junction is pcalled a Diode.

Biasing a diode.

Generally use of a dc voltage to establish certain operating condition in a diode is called biasing of diode. There are two bias condition i) forward bias ii) reverse bias

The Diode Forward bias

Applying a positive voltage to the anode and a negative voltage to the cathode. The electrons are forced to the junction. This diode is forward biased meaning current will flow.

The Diode

Reverse bias

Applying a negative voltage to the anode and positive voltage to the cathode. The electrons are attracted away from the junction. This diode is reverse biased meaning no current will flow.

If AC is applied to a diode:

The Diode with AC Current

During one half of the cycle the diode is forward biased and current flows. During the other half of the cycle, the diode is reversed biased and current stops.

This is the process of rectification, allowing current to flow in only one direction. This is used to convert AC into pulsating DC.

The Light Emitting Diode

In normal diodes, when electrons combine with holes current flows and heat is produced. With some materials, when electrons combine with holes, photons of light are emitted, this forms an LED. LEDs are generally used as indicators though they have the same properties as a regular diode.

The Transistor
collector base emitter

The Transistor

There are two basic types of transistors depending of the arrangement of the material.

PNP NPN

An easy phrase to help remember the appropriate symbol is to look at the arrow.

PNP

PNP pointing in proudly. NPN not pointing in.

The only operational difference is the source polarity. Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made from silicon

The basic transistor circuits

NPN

Switch Amplifier

The NPN Transistor

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. An NPN transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode.
non-conducting coll ctor N P b se N reverse bi s emitter

e-

The PNP Transistor

PNP, consisting of a layer of N- doped semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. An PNP

transistor can be considered as two diodes with a shared cathode.

Video

Integrated circuit

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, chip, or electronics, microchip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has devices, components) been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now phones, inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made possible by the low cost of production of integrated circuits.

Active and passive components

A passive component either a component that consumes (but does not produce) energy, or a component that is incapable of power gain. Under this methodology resistors, gain. resistors, tunnel diodes, glow tubes, capacitors, metamaterials and diodes, tubes, capacitors, other dissipative and energy-neutral components are energyconsidered passive. A component that is not passive is called an active component .Under this methodology, voltage and current sources and transistors, diodes are considered active components.