Analog and Digital Electronics(EEC-309)

Nisha Prakash (ECE Department)

EEC-309 : ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS ANALOG ELECTRONICS: UNIT-I Special DiodesLED, Varactor diode, Photo diode, Schottky diode, Tunnel diode; their characteristics and applications. Transistors as a switch. UNIT-II Frequency Response: Amplifier transfer function, low and high frequency response of common emitter and common source amplifiers. Feedback: General feedback structure; properties of negative feedback; series-series, series-shunt, shunt-series and shunt-shunt feedback amplifiers. UNIT-III: Basic principle of sinusoidal oscillator, R-C Phase Shift and Wein Bridge oscillators, tuned oscillators- Collpits and Hartley; Crystal oscillator

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS: UNIT-IV Combinational Logic Circuits: Multiplexers/Demultiplexures, Encoders/Decoders. Sequential Logic Circuits: latches, flip-flops- S-R, T, D, J-K. Shift Registers: Basic principle, serial and parallel data transfer, shift left/right registers, universal shift register. Counters: Mode N Counters, ripple counters, synchronous counters, ring/Johnson counters. UNIT-V OP-AMP applications - Astable, Monostable and Bistable multivibrators, Schmitt trigger, IC555 Timer, A/D and D/A converters. Voltage Regulators: Series, shunt and switching regulators, opamp based configurations. Memories: Introduction to ROM, RAM; Sequential Memory, Memory organization.

Text books  A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith Microelectronics Circuits Oxford University Press ( India)  Malvino & Leach, Digital Principles and applications Tata Mc. Graw Hill  R.A. Gayakwad Op amps and Linear Integrated Circuits Prentice Hall of India.  Balbir Kumar and Shail B.Jain, Electronic Devices and Circuits Prentice Hall of India,2007 Reference books  Taub & Schilling Digital Electronics- Tata Mc Graw Hill  Anil K. Maini, Digital Electronics: Principles and Integrated circuits Wiley India Ltd,2008.  Millman, J. and Grabel A, Microelectronics Mc Graw Hill  Anand Kumar, Switching Theory and Logic Design Prentice Hall of India, 2008.  Aloke. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Devices and circuits, Oxford University Press, 2008.

UNIT-1 Special Diodes

Basics of semiconductor diode


If we join a section of N-type semiconductor material with a similar section of P-type semiconductor material, we obtain a device known as a PN JUNCTION. The area where the N and P regions meet is appropriately called the junction.

How a pn junction diode works?



The most important property of a junction diode is its ability to pass an electric current in one direction only. When the p-type region of the p-n junction is connected to the positive terminal of the battery, current will flow. The diode is said to be under forward bias. However, when the battery terminals are reversed, the p-n junction almost completely blocks the current flow. This is called reverse bias. If the diode is not connected at all, it is said to be opencircuited and of course no current can flow through the diode.

pn-junction diodecharacteristics

BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor)

A bipolar junction transistor consists of three regions of doped semiconductors. A small current in the center or base region can be used to control a larger current flowing between the end regions (emitter and collector). The device can be characterized as a current amplifier, having many applications for amplification and switching.

Transistor Operation  A transistor in a circuit will be in one of three conditions  Cut off (no collector current), useful for switch operation.  In the active region (some collector current, more than a few tenths of a volt above the emitter), useful for amplifier applications  In saturation (collector a few tenths of a volt above emitter), large current useful for "switch on" applications.

LED
Function


LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.

In a forward-biased pn junction diode, within the structure and mainly close to junction, a recombination of holes & e- occurs.  This recombination requires that the energy possessed by unbound free e- be transferred to another state. In all semiconductors p-n junctions are some of the energy is given off in the form of heat or some in forms of photons.  The recombination of injected carriers are due to forwardbiased junctions results in emitted light at the site of recombination.  Si & Ge diodes : Emits energy in form of HEAT  So, GaAs diodes are used : Emits light in IR (invisible) zone during recombination process. Applications:  Security system  Industrial processing  Optical coupling  Safety controls such as Garage-door openers, Home entertainment centers, etc where the IR light of remote control is the controlling element.


Relative Intensity vs Wavelength (P)

Bargraph

7-segment

Starburst

Dot matrix

Photodiode


Silicon photodiodes are semiconductor devices responsive to high energy particles and photons. Photodiodes operate by absorption of photons or charged particles and generate a flow of current in an external circuit, proportional to the incident power. Photodiodes can be used to detect the presence or absence of minute quantities of light. The photodiode is a semiconductor pn junction device whose region of operation is limited to reverse-bias region. They are usually made of GaAs. It basically converts light signal into electrical signal.

Applications: Silicon photodiodes are utilized in such diverse applications  spectroscopy  photography  analytical instrumentation  optical position sensors  beam alignment  surface characterization  laser range finders  optical communications  medical imaging instruments.

Planar diffused Silicon photodiode

Dark current is the current that exists at no applied potential.

APPLICATIONS
In alarm system, the reverse current will continue to flow as long as the light beam is not broken. If the beam is interrupted Current drops to dark level and sounds the alarm.
 

Used in family of circuits like optoelectronics or photonics. Used in optical signal processing, storage and transmission. Fiber-optics transmission of Telephone and T.V. signals.

Schottky Barrier diode



Schottky diode or Schottky barrier diode is an electronic component that is widely used for radio frequency (RF) applications as a mixer and detector diode. Also used in power application as rectifier, again because of low voltage drop leading to low level of power loss as compared to pn junction diode. It is also called surface barrier, hot-carrier or hot-electron diode. It is one of the oldest semiconductor device.

Structure
 

Most simple is the point contact diode where a metal wire is pressed against a clean semiconductor surface. They were found to be very unreliable, requiring frequent repositioning of the wire to ensure satisfactory operation.

Operation
  

Its construction is different from normal pn junction diode, In this a metal semiconductor junction is created. In both materials, e- is majority carriers when materials are joined, the e- in n-type semiconductors material immediately flow into adjoining metal, establishing a heavy flow of majority carriers (e-). Since the injected carriers have a high K.E. level compared to the e- of metal, they are called HOT-CARRIERS. Schottky diodes are unique in that conduction is entirely by majority carriers.

 


Applications Mainly in switching power supplies.

The Schottky barrier diodes are widely used in the electronics industry finding many uses as diode rectifier. Its unique properties enable it to be used in a number of applications where other diodes would not be able to provide the same level of performance. In particular it is used in areas including: RF mixer and detector diode Power rectifier Power OR circuits Solar cell applications Clamp diode - especially with its use in LS TTL

    

Tunnel Diode


In 1958, Leo Esaki, a Japanese scientist, discovered that if a semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it will have a region of negative resistance. This is a germanium semiconductor diode that uses a quantum mechanical tunneling effect to get very high switching speeds, to the order of 5 GHz. The normal junction diode uses semiconductor materials that are lightly doped with one impurity atom for ten-million semiconductor atoms. This low doping level results in a relatively wide depletion region. Conduction occurs in the normal junction diode only if the voltage applied to it is large enough to overcome the potential barrier of the junction. The tunnel diode has a region in its voltage current characteristic where the current decreases with increased forward voltage, known as its negative resistance region. This characteristic makes the tunnel diode useful in oscillators and as a microwave amplifier.

In the TUNNEL DIODE, the semiconductor materials used in forming a junction are doped to the extent of one-thousand impurity atoms for ten-million semiconductor atoms. This heavy doping produces an extremely narrow depletion zone similar to that in the Zener diode. Also because of the heavy doping, a tunnel diode exhibits an unusual current-voltage characteristic curve as compared with that of an ordinary junction diode. The characteristic curve for a tunnel diode is illustrated in figure:

The three most important aspects of this characteristic curve are (1) the forward current increase to a peak (IP) with a small applied forward bias, (2) the decreasing forward current with an increasing forward bias to a minimum valley current (IV), and (3) the normal increasing forward current with further increases in the bias voltage.  The portion of the characteristic curve between IP and IV is the region of negative resistance.


Applications:  They are used in low power amplifiers; DLVA, microwave and RF power monitors, high-frequency triggers, ALC loops, zero bias detectors, ACP tunnel diode circuits, etc.  Since they are more resistant to nuclear radiation, tunnel diodes are used in space applications like amplifiers for satellite communications.