Introducing Applied Linguistics

Human Learning

Outline
The

nature of human learning Philosophical bases of learning theories

The pessimistic view The hedonistic view The optimistic view The tabula-rasa or blank-slate view

Major

learning theories

Behavioristic theories Cognitive theories

The Nature of Human Learning

Learning

vs. change Learning vs. growth or maturation Learning vs. development Learning vs. thinking

Philosophical bases of learning theories

The

pessimistic view The hedonistic view The optimistic view The tabula-rasa or blankslateview

Learning, defined
learning, the alteration of behavior as a result of individual experience. When an organism can perceive and change its behavior, it is said to learn. Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. (Kimble & Garmezy, Principles of General Psychology, 1963:133)

Types of learning
The array of learned behavior includes associative, or conditioned, learning (both classical and operant conditioning); discrimination learning, where a subject learns to respond to a limited range of sensory characteristics, such as a particular shade of coloration; habituation, the cessation of responses to repeated stimulation; concept formation, the process of sorting experiences according to related features; problem solving; perceptual learning, the effects of past experience on sensory perceptions; and psychomotor learning, the development of neuromuscular patterns in response to sensory signals. Imitation, insight learning, and imprinting are other types of learning.

Conditioning vs. Process

Focus on two types of learning Conditioning
The simplest form of learning, involving learning associations between stimuli and responses (external observable events)
Process-oriented

Emphasizing the role of cognition (or consciousness, i.e. the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge) in learning (internal mental events)

Major learning theories

Behavoristic

theories

Classical behaviorism
Pavlovs classical conditioning Thorndikes instrumental conditioning Watsons behaviorism

Neobehaviorism
Guthries S-R theory Hulls S-R theory Skinners operant conditioning

Cognitive

theories

Gestalt psychology Piagets developmental psychology Ausubels theory of meaningful learning

Classical conditioning.
This is the form of learning studied by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936). Some neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is presented just before delivery of some effective stimulus (say, food or acid placed in the mouth of a dog). A response such as salivation, originally evoked only by the effective stimulus, eventually appears when the initially neutral stimulus is presented. The response is said to have become conditioned. Classical conditioning seems easiest to establish for involuntary reactions mediated by the autonomic nervous system. (See the illustration.)

Instrumental conditioning
This indicates learning to obtain reward or to avoid punishment. Laboratory examples of such conditioning among small mammals or birds are common. Rats or pigeons may be taught to press levers for food; they also learn to avoid or terminate electric shock.

The learning curve of one of Thorndikess cats. The insert shows one of Thorndikes puzzle boxes. The cat had to perform 3 separate acts to escape the box, including depressing the pedal on the right. The learning curve shows how the cats escape time declined over a number of

Watsons behaviorism
Watson is the earliest and most extreme American behaviorist. He coined the term behaviorism, which stressed the environmental modifiability of The conditioning of Little Albert. behavior, as against determination by constitutional The diagram shows how Little structure. His study confirmed Alberts fear response to a while rat was established. Alberts fear the theory of stimulus response to other white, furry generalization, which occurs objects illustrates generalization. when an organism responds to In the photo, made from a 1919 new stimuli that are similar to film, Rosalie Rayner and John the original stimulus used in Watson (behind the mask) test conditioning. Albert for stimulus generalization.

Neo-behaviorism (1)
E.R. Guthrie (1886-1959) wrote that learning requires only that a response be made in a changing situation. Any response was held to be linked specifically to the situation in which it was learned. Guthrie argued that learning is complete in one trial, that the most recent response in a situation is the one that is learned, and that responses (rather than perceptions or psychological states) provide the raw materials for the learning process.

Neo-behaviorism (2)
The theory offered by Clark L. Hull (18841952), over the period between 1929 and his death, was the most detailed and complex of the great theories of learning. The basic concept for Hull was "habit strength," which was said to develop as a function of practice. Habits were depicted as stimulus-response connections based on reward. According to Hull, responses (rather than perceptions or expectancies) participate in habit formation, the process is gradual, and reward is an essential condition.

Neo-behaviorism (3)
For such major investigators of learning as B.F. Skinner, the approach simply was to discover the conditions that produce and control learned behavior. Beyond this, their interests diverged. Skinner studied instrumental conditioning ( operant conditioning, as he called it) among rats; McGeoch specialized in human rote memory. Although study of rote verbal learning had become heavily theoretical by the 1970s, Skinner and his associates stuck to their empirical guns, guiding a variety of programs for the practical control of behavior. Teaching machines and computer-aided instruction, behavior modification (e.g., the use of tokens to reward desired behavior among psychiatric patients), and planned utopian societies all found scientific origins in Skinner's rejection of theory in favor of direct efforts to produce results.

Cognitive theories
Gestalt

psychology Piagets developmental psychology

schemata
Ausubel

s meaningful learning theory

Summary

Nurture vs. Nature

The war never ends.
End of Lecture 3

Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)

Along with Kohler and Koffka, Max Wertheimer was one of the principal proponents of Gestalt theory which emphasized higher-order cognitive processes in the midst of behaviorism. The focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of "grouping", i.e., characteristics of stimuli cause us to structure or interpret a visual field or problem in a certain way.

Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer) (2 of 6)

The primary factors that determine grouping were: (1) proximity - elements tend to be grouped together according to their nearness, (2) similarity items similar in some respect tend to be grouped together, (3) closure - items are grouped together if they tend to complete some entity, (4) simplicity items will be organized into simple figures according to symmetry, regularity, and smoothness, and (5) continuity we tend to view elements in ways that produce smooth continuation. These factors were called the laws of organization and were explained in the context of perception and problem-solving.

Gestalt Theory (3 of 6)
Wertheimer was especially concerned with problem-solving. Werthiemer (1959) provides a Gestalt interpretation of problem-solving episodes of famous scientists (e.g., Galileo, Einstein) as well as children presented with mathematical problems. The essence of successful problem-solving behavior according to Wertheimer is being able to see the overall structure of the problem: "A certain region in the field becomes crucial, is focused; but it does not become isolated. A new, deeper structural view of the situation develops, involving changes in functional meaning, the grouping, etc. of the items. Directed by what is required by the structure of a situation for a crucial region, one is led to a reasonable prediction, which like the other parts of the structure, calls for verification, direct or indirect. Two directions are involved: getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing what the structure of the whole requires for the parts." (p 212).

Gestalt Theory (4 of 6)
Scope/Application: Gestalt theory applies to all aspects of human learning, although it applies most directly to perception and problem-solving. The work of Gibson was strongly influenced by Gestalt theory. Example: The classic example of Gestalt principles provided by Wertheimer is children finding the area of parallelograms. As long as the parallelograms are regular figures, a standard procedure can be applied (making lines perpendicular from the corners of the base). However, if a parallelogram with a novel shape or orientation is provided, the standard procedure will not work and children are forced to solve the problem by understanding the true structure of a parallelogram (i.e., the figure can be bisected anywhere if the ends are joined).

Gestalt Theory (5 of 6)
Principles: 1. The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or problem (i.e., the relationship among the elements). 2. Gaps, incongruities, or disturbances are an important stimulus for learning 3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: proximity, closure, similarity, simplicity, and continuity.

Gestalt Theory (6 of 6)
References/Sources: Ellis, W.D. (1938). A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive Thinking (Enlarged Ed.). New York:Harper & Row. For current information on Gestalt theory, check out the web site of the Society for Gestalt Theory and Its Application (http://www.enabling.org/ia /gestalt/gerhards/) which is a special interest group of the Association for the Advancement for Gestalt Therapy (AAGT)

J. Piagets Genetic Epistemology

Over a period of six decades, Jean Piaget conducted a program of naturalistic research that has profoundly affected our understanding of child development. Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was primarily interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget had a background in both Biology and Philosophy and concepts from both these disciplines influences his theories and research of child development.

Genetic Epistemology (2 of 6)
The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory. Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child development. There are four primary cognitive structures (i.e., development stages) according to Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations. In the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), intelligence takes the form of motor actions. Intelligence in the preoperation period (3-7 years) is intutive in nature. The cognitive structure during the concrete operational stage (8-11 years) is logical but depends upon concrete referents. In the final stage of formal operations (12-15 years), thinking involves abstractions.

Genetic Epistemology (3 of 6)
Cognitive structures change through the processes of adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves the interpretation of events in terms of existing cognitive structure whereas accommodation refers to changing the cognitive structure to make sense of the environment. Cognitive development consists of a constant effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget's theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning (e.g., Bruner, Vygotsky). While the stages of cognitive development identified by Piaget are associated with characteristic age spans, they vary for every individual. Furthermore, each stage has many detailed structural forms. For example, the concrete operational period has more than forty distinct structures covering classification and relations, spatial relationships, time, movement, chance, number, conservation and measurement. Similar detailed analysis of intellectual functions is provided by theories of intelligence such as Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg.

Genetic Epistemology (4 of 6)
Scope/Application: Piaget explored the implications of his theory to all aspects of cognition, intelligence and moral development. Many of Piaget's experiments were focused on the development of mathematical and logical concepts. The theory has been applied extensively to teaching practice and curriculum design in elementary education (e.g., Bybee & Sund, 1982; Wadsworth, 1978). Piaget's ideas have been very influential on others, such as Seymour Papert (see computers). Example: Applying Piaget's theory results in specific recommendations for a given stage of cognitive development. For example, with children in the sensorimotor stage, teachers should try to provide a rich and stimulating environment with ample objects to play with. On the other hand, with children in the concrete operational stage, learning activities should involve problems of classification, ordering, location, conservation using concrete objects.

Genetic Epistemology (5 of 6)
Principles: 1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development. 2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accommodation). 3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities. 4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.

Genetic Epistemology (6 of 6)
References: Brainerd, C. (1978). Piaget's Theory of Intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bybee, R.W. & Sund, R.B. (1982). Piaget for Educators (2nd Ed). Columbus, OH: Charles Merrill. Flavell, J. H. (1963). The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Gallagher, J.M. & Reid, D.K. (1981). The Learning Theory of Piaget and Inhelder. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Piaget, J. (1929). The Child's Conception of the World. NY: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich. Piaget, J. (1932). The Moral Judgment of the Child. NY: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich. Piaget, J. (1969). The Mechanisms of Perception. London: Rutledge & Kegan Paul. Piaget, J. (1970). The Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child. NY:
Grossman.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the Child. NY: Basic Books. Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1973). Memory and intelligence. NY: Basic Books. Wadsworth, B. (1978). Piaget for the Classroom Teacher. NY: Longman. For information about current activities relating to Piaget, see the Jean Piaget Society (http://www.piaget.org/) or Piaget Archive (http://www.unige.ch/piaget) web sites.

Schema
Bartlett (1932, 1958) is credited with first proposing the concept of schema (plural: schemata). He arrived at the concept from studies of memory he conducted in which subjects recalled details of stories that were not actually there. He suggested that memory takes the form of schema which provide a mental framework for understanding and remembering information. Mandler (1984) and Rumelhart (1980) have further developed the schema concept. Schema have received significant empirical support from studies in psycholinguistics. For example, the experiments of Bransford & Franks (1971) involved showing people pictures and asking them questions about what the story depicted; people would remember different details depending upon the nature of the picture. Schema are also considered to be important components of cultural differences in cognition (e.g., Quinn & Holland, 1987). Research on novice versus expert performance (e.g., Chi et al., 1988) suggests that the nature of expertise is largely due to the possession of schemas that guide perception and problem-solving.

D. Ausubels Subsumption Theory

Ausubel's theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual identity.

Ausubels Theory (2 of 6)
A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance organizers: "These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure." (1963 , p. 81). Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubels Theory (3 of 6)
Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema (e.g., Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Scope/Application: Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).

Ausubels Theory (4 of 6)
Ausubel's theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that involve schema (e.g., Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Scope/Application: Ausubel clearly indicates that his theory applies only to reception (expository) learning in school settings. He distinguishes reception learning from rote and discovery learning; the former because it doesn't involve subsumption (i.e., meaningful materials) and the latter because the learner must discover information through problem solving. A large number of studies have been conducted on the effects of advance organizers in learning (see Ausubel, 1968, 1978).

Ausubels Theory (5 of 6)
Example: Ausubel (1963, p. 80) cites Boyd's textbook of pathology as an example of progressive differentiation because the book presents information according to general processes (e.g., inflammation, degeneration) rather than by describing organ systems in isolation. He also cites the Physical Science Study Committee curriculum which organizes material according to the major ideas of physics instead of piece-meal discussion of principle or phenomenon (p. 78). Principles: 1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. 2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Ausubels Theory (6 of 6)
References: Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune & Stratton. Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational Research, 48, 251-257. Ausubel, D., Novak, J., & Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936)

Russian physiologist and Nobel laureate, best known for his studies of reflex behavior. He was born in Ryazan', and educated at the University of Saint Petersburg and at the Military Medical Academy, Saint Petersburg; from 1884 to 1886 he studied in Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) and Leipzig, Germany. Before the Russian Revolution he served as director of the department of physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine (part of the present Academy of Medical Sciences), Saint Petersburg, and professor of medicine at the Military Medical Academy.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (2 of 3)

In spite of his opposition to Communism, Pavlov was allowed to continue his research in a laboratory built by the Soviet Government in 1935. Pavlov is noted for his pioneer work in the physiology of the heart, nervous system, and digestive system. His most famous experiments, begun in 1889, demonstrated the conditioned and unconditioned reflexes in dogs, and they had an influence on the development of physiologically oriented behaviorist theories of psychology during the early years of the 20th century. His work on the physiology of the digestive glands won him the 1904 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. His major work is Conditioned Reflexes (1926; trans. 1927).

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (3 of 3)

A schematic view of Pavlovs classical conditioning apparatus.

Classical conditioning illustrated

The sequence of events in classical conditioning.

B.F. Skinner (1 of 10)

Burrhus Fredric Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, PA. Skinner's early life seems to have been representative of a typical all-American, small town boyhood of an earlier time (Nye, 1992). Skinner majored in English at Hamilton College. He received his undergraduate degree in the Spring of 1926. It became obvious to Skinner that he had failed to become the kind of writer that he wanted to be. After beginning to consider Psychology as the discipline he would pursue, he began to apply to graduate schools. Skinner was accepted to Harvard University for the Fall 1928.

B.F. Skinner (2 of 10)

In 1931, Skinner received his Ph.D. Some of Skinner's major publications are Verbal Behavior, Science and Human Behavior and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. In 1936, B.F. Skinner married Yvonne Blue. The Skinners had 2 children. The second, Deborah, became the famous "baby in a box." This special crib consisted of an enclosed space with a glass front, through which the baby could watch what was going on around her. We can not confuse this with the Skinner Box which he used to pursue his interest in operant behavior.

B.F. Skinner (3 of 10) It has long been known that behavior is

affected by its consequences. We reward and punish people, for example, so that they will behave in different ways. A more specific effect of a consequence was first studied experimentally by Edward L. Thorndike in a well-known experiment. A cat enclosed in a box struggled to escape and eventually moved the latch which opened the door. When repeatedly enclosed in a box, the cat gradually ceased to do those things which had proved ineffective ("errors") and eventually made the successful response very quickly.

B.F. Skinner (4 of 10) conditioning, behavior is also affected by its In operant

consequences, but the process is not trial-and-error learning. It can best be explained with an example. A hungry rat is placed in a semi-soundproof box. For several days bits of food are occasionally delivered into a tray by an automatic dispenser. The rat soon goes to the tray immediately upon hearing the sound of the dispenser. A small horizontal section of a lever protruding from the wall has been resting in its lowest position, but it is now raised slightly so that when the rat touches it, it moves downward. In doing so it closes an electric circuit and operates the food dispenser. Immediately after eating the delivered food the rat begins to press the lever fairly rapidly.

strengthened or reinforced by a single consequence. The rat was not "trying" to do anything when it first touched the lever and it did not learn from errors. To a hungry rat, food is a natural reinforcer, but the reinforcer in this example is the sound of the food dispenser, which was conditioned as a reinforcer when it was repeatedly followed by the delivery of food before the lever was pressed. In fact, the sound of that one operation of the dispenser would have had an observable effect even though no food was delivered on that occasion, but when food no longer follows pressing the lever, the rat eventually stops pressing. The behavior is said to have been extinguished.

B.F. Skinner (5 of 10) The behavior has been

B.F. Skinner (6 of 10)

Reinforcers may be positive or negative. A positive reinforcer reinforces when it is presented; a negative reinforcer reinforces when it is withdrawn. Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Reinforcers always strengthen behavior; that is what "reinforced" means. Punishment is used to suppress behavior. It consists of removing a positive reinforcer or presenting a negative one. It often seems to operate by conditioning negative reinforcers. The punished person henceforth acts in ways which reduce the threat of punishment and which are incompatible with, and hence take the place of, the behavior punished.

B.F. Skinner (7 of 10)

The human species is distinguished by the fact that its vocal responses can be easily conditioned as operants. There are many kinds of verbal operants because the behavior must be reinforced only through the mediation of other people, and they do many different things. The reinforcing practices of a given culture compose what is called a language. The practices are responsible language for most of the extraordinary achievements of the human species. Other species acquire behavior from each other through imitation and modeling (they show each other what to do), but they cannot tell each other what to do. We acquire most of our behavior with that kind of help.

B.F. Skinner (8 of 10)

We take advice, heed warnings, observe rules, and obey laws, and our behavior then comes under the control of consequences which would otherwise not be effective. Most of our behavior is too complex to have occurred for the first time without such verbal help. By taking advice and following rules we acquire a much more extensive repertoire than would be possible through a solitary contact with the environment.

B.F. Skinner (9 of 10)

Responding because behavior has had reinforcing consequences is very different from responding by taking advice, following rules, or obeying laws. We do not take advice because of the particular consequence that will follow; we take it only when taking other advice from similar sources has already had reinforcing consequences. In general, we are much more strongly inclined to do things if they have had immediate reinforcing consequences than if we have been merely advised to do them.

B.F. Skinner (10 of 10)

The innate behavior studied by ethologists is shaped and maintained by its contribution to the survival of the individual and species. Operant behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences for the individual. Both processes have controversial features. Neither one seems to have any place for a prior plan or purposes. In both, selection replaces creation.

Skinner box
Skinner built a small, sound-proof chamber that provides an experimental space within which an animal can be studied (Nye, 1992). In this box, an animal can be isolated from interfering influences and subjected to specific conditions. The operant behavior studied is lever pressing by a rat. The chamber contains only a bar (or lever) and a small tray outside the box. The tray holds the food pellets that are dropped into the tray when the bar is pressed under certain conditions.

Reinforcement & punishment

Reinforcers always strengthen behavior; that is what "reinforced" means. Punishment is used to suppress behavior.

Classical & operant (instrumental) conditionings compared (1 of 2)

A shuttle box: a. Escape & avoidance learning are often studied in an apparatus of this type. b. Avoidance begins because classical conditioning leads to the acquisition of a new fear. Avoidance continues because its maintained by operant conditioning.

Classical & operant (instrumental) co Classical & operant (instrumental) co (2 of 2) (2 of 2)

Proximity
Elements that are close to one another tend to be grouped together. These dots might well be organized in columns rather than horizontal rows, but because of proximity we tend to perceive rows.

Similarity
Elements that are similar tend to be grouped together. Because of similarity of color, we see dots organized into the number 2 instead of a random array.

Closure
We tend to supply missing elements to close or complete a familiar image. Even though the figure is incomplete, we organize it into a triangle.

Simplicity
We tend to organize elements in the simplest way possible. We tend to see figure (a) as made up of the elements shown in the simplest alternative (b), rather than the more complex alternatives (c) and (d).

Continuity
We tend to view elements in ways that produce smooth continuation

Perception problems: figure & ground

Whether you see two faces or a vase depends on which part of this drawing you see as figure and which as background. Although this reversible drawing allows us to switch back and forth between two ways of organizing our perception, we cant perceive the drawing both ways at once.

What is this?

Perception problems: reversible figure

What do you see?

A young woman looking back over her right shoulder? Or an old woman with her chin down on her chest?

Perception problems: perceptual hypotheses

The context guides our perceptual hypothesis. What do you see in the following figure?

The Necker cube. The tinted surface can become either the front or the back of the cube.

Perception problems: misleading cues

Are they of equal length?
a. Are

Are the long diagonals all parallel?

the horizontal lines are the same length? b. Do the two diagonal segments lie on the same straight line? c. Are the vertical and horizontal lines the same length?

Perception problems: impossible figures The figures are impossible, yet they clearly exist there. What makes them impossible is that they appear to be three-dimensional representations, yet they are drawn in a way that frustrates our attempts to assemble their features into possible objects. Its difficult to see the drawings simply as lines lying in a plane.

Perception problems: illusions (1)

What do you see in Savador Dalis Slave Market?

Perception problems: illusions (2)

What do you see in Eschers woodcut Day and Night?