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Insulators
Some materials like glass, ceramic, polymers and papers are non-conducting materials. They prevent flow of current through them. They provide electrical insulation.
DIELECTRICS :the non-conducting materials when placed in electric field modifies the electric field and themselves undergo appreciable change are called dielectrics.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
The ratio of the capacitance of the given capacitor with the material filling the entire space between its plates to the capacitance of capacitor in vacuum.
Dielectric Constant
Dielectric Polarization
In atom, centre of mass of the electron coincides with the nucleus. Atom do not have permanent dipole moment. Atoms in electric field acquires an induced electric dipole moment, called dielectric polarisation.
DIELECRIC POLARIZATION
Atoms of the dielectrics acquire induced dipole moment when placed in an external electric field this process is called dielectric polarization. Atoms are said to be polarized.
P = .E - IS MOLECULAR OR ATOMIC POLARIZIBILITY
DIELECRIC POLARIZATION
Atom
E
+
DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION
TYPES OF DIELECTRICS
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF DIELECTRICS:(1) POLAR DIELECTRICS (2) NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS
POLAR DIELECTRICS
A polar dielectric molecule is one in which center of gravity of positive charge is separated from centre of gravity of negative charge by finite distance.
POLAR DIELECTRICS
NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS Molecules in which center of gravity of negative charge coincides with positive charges are called non-polar molecules. Symmetrical molecules are non-polar molecules.
NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS
The magnitude of electric intensity vector is the force on unit positive charge at that point and the direction will be the direction of force. E = F/q0
ELECTRIC POLARIZATION
Induced dipole moment per unit volume is called electric polarization. P = n . Pin
ELECTRIC POLARIZATION
pin
-+ -+ -+
-+
-+ -+
-+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+
-+
E0 UNIT- coulomb/meter2
- - - - - - - E0 E +
+ + +
E0
- -
+ + + + + +
D = 0 . E + P
TYPES OF POLARIZATION
POLARIZATION OCCURS DUE TO FOLLOWING MECHANISM:(1) ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION (2) IONIC POLARIZATION (3) ORIENTATIONAL POLARIZATION
ELECTRONIC POLARIZATION
It results from a displacement of the centre of the negatively charged electron cloud relative to positive nucleus of an atom by electric field
No field Applied field
+ ATOM
IONIC POLARIZATION
In ionic lattice, the positive ions are displaced in the direction of an applied field while the negative ions are displaced in the opposite direction, giving a resultant (apparent) dipole moment to the whole body. + + + + + + + + +
+ -
- - + + +
- + +
Electric field
IONIC POLARIZATION
When electric field is applied to the ionic material cations and anions get separated in opposite direction which give rise to net dipole moment.
No field Applied field
_ a
_ b
ORIENTATIONAL POLARIZATION
It is found only in materials having permanent dipole moment. In absence of electric field the orientation of molecule is random while after applying electric field they align with electric field.
ORIENTATION POLARIZATION:
The electric field tends to direct the permanent dipoles.
Electric field
+e
-e
CLAUSIUS-MOSOTTI EQUATION
This is applicable to those dielectrics which exhibits Only electronic polarization e.g. diamond, silicon and germanium.
= 30 (r-1) / n.(r + 2)
CLAUSIUS-MOSOTTI EQUATION
LIMITATIONS:This equation is applicable to neutral liquids and specially to gases . This is not applicable to strong solution and solids. Also we have used the assumption (1)Molecule is isotropic (2) Other short range force = 0
E rsin
rd
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
The materials when placed in magnetic field acquires feeble magnetism in the direction opposite to magnetic field are called diamagnetic materials.
DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Properties:(1)Feebly magnetized by magnetic field in opposite direction .. (2)Negative magnetic susceptibility. (3)Relative permeability is less than unity. (4)Susceptibility is independent of temperature. (5)Magnetization M is linear function of magnetic field H. (6)Eg. Metals, hydrogen, air, gold , silver etc.
ne ol fd i
aidl p fd pi l e e
P ae a gi r n a t mc
ne ol fd i aidl p fd pi l e e
Q(1) the atomic weight and density of sulphur are 32 and 2.08gm/cm3 .The electronic polarizibility of atom is 3.2810-40 F-m2 .If sulphur has cubical Symmetry ,what will be relative dielectric constant.
Q(2) If Nacl crystal is subjected to an electric field of 1000v/m And the resulting polarization is 4.310-8 c/m2 , calculate the relative permittivity Of Nacl.
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Substance when placed in magnetic field are magnetized in the direction of field are called paramagnetic materials .
If no field is applied, these moments are randomly directed and there is no net magnetization of the material. However, when a magnetic field is present, the moments align preferentially along the direction of the external field. . The sum of these moments causes the magnetization.
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
PARAMAGNETISM
ne ol fd i aidl p fd pi l e e
P ae a gi r n a t mc
ne ol fd i aidl p fd pi l e e
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIAL
feebly magnetized in the direction of magnetic field . Susceptibility of paramagnetic has small positive value . Relative permeability is greater than 1 . It looses magnetism due to rise in temperature.
PARAMAGNETISM Each particular paramagnetic material has a characteristic Curie constant. Paramagnetism arises from atoms or ions with permanent magnetic dipole moments that exist independent of any applied field.
q
PARAMAGNETISM Another common magnetic behavior is paramagnetism, which is described by a positive paramagnetism susceptibility that depends inversely on the absolute temperature:
q
C T
This equation is known as the Curie-Weiss law, law and C is the Curie constant.
PARAMAGNETISM
> 10 T, T saturates
Below the paramagnetic Curie temperature (q), which is near 0 Kelvin in paramagnetic solids, paramagnetism disappears.
q
PARAMAGNETISM PARAMAGNETISM
according to Curie-Weisss law, as temperature increases the paramagnetic magnetization decreases, with some exceptions in metals M = C x (H / T - q) M: induced magnetization C: Curies cst. q : paramagnetic Curie T H: inducing magnetic field T: temperature in Kelvins however, these forces are extraordinarily small compare to the forces generated by the thermal motion of electrons.
PARAMAGNETISM
M M
K >0
H
K <0
D m nts i a e m a g i n F,M .. oe n. , wie i e ls h mr t na Q,K ,P gCl t f la, a z s Pr m nts aa a e m g i lo t m iu - e ot n wo e m cn t d F es f ro ans n e m eias r g OP,A pB M l, x m t s , , Tr Cl u h ,
THE CURIE-WEISS LAW paramagnetism is stronger at low T where the deranging effects of collisions are less
q
most pure mafic silicates are paramagnetic, but also Fe-sulphides and Fe-carbonates
q
=C/ T
FERROMAGNETISM
gases.
Susceptibility of ferromagnetic has large positive value . Relative permeability is greater than 1 . Ferromagnetism decreases with temperature curie temperature ferromagnetic properties of material disappear all of a sudden and material behaves as paramagnetic . at
FERROMAGNETISM In ferromagnetic materials, all magnetic moments permanently line up and lock together. This effect is about 104 times stronger than the paramagnetic alignement and can be explained only by quantum mechanics, the magnetic susceptibility is usually large.
FERROMAGNETISM
Magnetic Domains
Magnetic domains in an unpolarized ferromagnetic solid are random because of the random orientation of the grains within the material.
Under the influence of an external field, the polarization direction of the individual domains and their size may change irreversibly, creating a permanent magnet.
We have seen that in diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials a NET magnetization may be induced in the PRESENCE of an applied magnetic field
FERROMAGNETISM
* In FERROMAGNETIC materials however a SPONTANEOUS magnetization may even exist in the ABSENCE of any external magnetic field
M
Ms
Mr
FERROMAGNETISM
M
saturation m agnetization
M s
M rs
H c
re a e m n nt co rcivity e
FERROMAGNETISM
* We begin by applying a magnetic field to a piece of ferromagnetic material that is initially UNMAGNETIZED With increasing magnetic field strength the magnetization increases and eventually SATURATES at some characteristic value Ms . When the external magnetic field is then reduced to back ZERO the magnetization does NOT return to zero but a REMNANT magnetization Mr instead
FERROMAGNETISM
when the magnetic field is returned to zero a spontaneous magnetization Mr known as the remnant magnetization or remance persists
FERROMAGNETIM
*To overcome the spontaneous remnance it is necessary to REVERSE the magnetic field strength to a value Hc known as the COERCIVE FIELD * Solids with large remnant magnetizations and coercive fields are referred to as HARD magnetic materials *A complete cycle of the magnetic-field strength through positive and negative values gives rise to a HYSTERESIS CURVE
HYSTERESIS CURVE
M
Hc
*Easy to Demagnetize
*Easy to Change the Direction of Magnetization *Coercivity is small (~ 0.02 to ~ 10 Oe) *Hard to Demagnetize
*Hard to Change the Direction of Magnetization *Coercively is large (~ 100 to ~ 10,000 Oe)
Iron Fe-Si alloys Fe-Ni alloys Fe-Al & Fe-Al-Si alloys Soft ferrites MoFe2O3, [M,Zn]Fe2O4 Amorphous alloys(e.g.,Fe72Co8Si5B15) Nanocrystalline alloys (e.g.,Fe73.5Cu1Nb3Si13.5B9)
VARIOUS HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS Iron & cobalt steel Nickel and cobalt alloys (alnicos) Oxides (Hard ferrites) Rare earth inter-metallic compounds
FERROMAGNETISM
The saturation magnetization is temperature DEPENDENT and VANISHES completely above the CURIE TEMPERATURE (TC ).
*
MS(0)
TC (K)
1043 1404 631 289
MS(0) (A/m)
1.75 x 106 1.45 x 106 0.51 x 106 5.66 x 106
FERROMAGNETIC
TC
FERROMAGNETISM For ferromagnetism the Curie temperature and the constant q in the Curie-Weiss law are ALMOST identical A SMALL difference exists however since the transition from ferromagnetism to paramagnetism is GRADUAL
FERROMAGNETIM
In ferromagnetic materials the spins of electrons in UNFILLED d-BANDS spontaneously align parallel to each other below TC
* This alignment results in the formation of magnetic DOMAINS and occurs even in the ABSENCE of an applied magnetic field
FERROMAGNETISM
FERROMAGNETISM
With NO applied field however the spins of different domains are RANDOMLY oriented with respect to each other and the net magnetization is ZERO . An external field ALIGNS the domains and gives rise to a NET magnetization that PERSISTS even when the external field is removed.
FERROMAGNETISM
MOLECULAR-FIELD THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM In diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials we have discussed how an EXTERNAL magnetic field may be used to align magnetic moments
* Weiss postulated that in ferromagnetic materials the spontaneous alignment of moments may occur due to the presence of an internal MOLECULAR FIELD
H Tot = H e + H m
In this expression the MOLECULAR field
(14 .1)
written as
H m = M
(14 .2)
the intersection point of these curves yields the value of the spontaneous magnetization at zero magnetic field only when the temperature is less than the curie temperature is a non-zero spontaneous magnetization possible when the temperature equals the curie temperature the intersection of the curves is located at the origin indicating that the ferromagnetic behavior is lost completely
Summary
Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Non-perfect Antiferromagnetism Antiferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism
ANTIFERROMAGNETISM
10 3 Tn T
ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Antiferromagnetic materials include chromium and manganese. In antiferromagnetic materials, the magnetic moments of individual atoms are strong, but adjacent atoms align in opposite directions. The macroscopic magnetization of the material is negligible even in the presence of an applied field.
ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
manganese and chromium exhibits antiferromagnetism. most of the antiferromagnetic materials are ionic compound.Mno,MnS,Cr2O3,etc
FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Ferrimagnetic materials include oxides of iron, nickel, or cobalt. The magnetic moments of adjacent atoms are aligned opposite to each other, but there is incomplete cancellation of the moments because they are not equal. Thus, there is a net magnetic moment within a domain.
Ferrites are the most useful ferrimagnetic materials. Ferrites are ceramic material containing compounds of iron. Ferrites are non-conducting magnetic media so eddy current and ohmic losses are less than for ferromagnetic materials. Ferrites are often used as transformer cores at radio frequencies (RF).
FERRITES
FERROMAGNETISM
Ferromagnetic s.l. (below Curie-Nel temperature)
no field applied field
Ferromagnetic s.s.
no field
applied field
Antiferromagnetic
no field
applied field
Ferrimagnetic
FERROMAGNETISM
This alignment persist up to the Curie temperature Tc where forces from the thermal motion of electrons become stronger than the self-alignment forces; at this point, the magnetic susceptibility becomes the paramagnetic susceptibility and varies according to the Curie-Weiss law.
INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETO-OPTICS
ISOM2000 Tutorial
CONTENTS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction Light and Magnetism What is the Magneto-Optical Effect? Electromagnetism and Magneto-Optics Electronic Theory Measurement of Magneto-Optical Effect
INTRODUCTION
MAGNETO-OPTICAL EFFECT :- Discovered by Faraday on 1845 PHENOMENON :- Change of Linear Polarization to Elliptically Polarized Light Accompanied by Rotation of Principal Axis CAUSE :-Difference of Optical Response between LCP and RCP APPLICATION: Magneto-Optical Disk Optical Isolator Current Sensors Observation Technique
In magnetic media (ferro-magnetic or ferri-magnetic) the effects are much larger, although difficult to detect. In these cases it is usual and convenient to refer to three principal orientations. These are:
The three orientations are defined in terms of the direction of the magnetisation vector M with respect to the surface of the material and the plane of incidence of an incident optical beam.
LONGITUDINAL CASE In the longitudinal case the magnetisation vector is in the plane of the surface and parallel to the plane of incidence The effect is that radiation incident in either of these linearly polarised states is, on reflection, converted to elliptically polarised light.
LONGITUDINAL CASE
POLAR CASE In the Polar case the magnetisation vector is perpendicular to the plane of the surface.
The effect is that radiation incident in either of these linearly polarised states is, on reflection, converted to elliptically polarised light.
POLAR CASE
TRANSVERSE CASE
in such a case, the reflected radiation remains linearly polarised and there is only a change in reflected (or transmitted) amplitude such that as M changes sign from +M to -M the reflectivity changes from R+R to R-R.
TRANSVERSE CASE
4. Electromagnetism
PHENOMENOLOGY OF MO EFFECT
Linearly polarized light can be decomposed to LCP and RCP Difference in phase causes rotation of the direction of Linear polarization Difference in amplitudes makes Elliptically polarized light In general, elliptically polarized light With the principal axis rotated
+ P-like
S-like
MEASUREMENT OF MO EFFECT
1. Cross-polarizer technique 2. Vibrating polarizer technique 3. Rotating analyzer technique 4. Faraday modulation technique
MO SPECTRA OF MATERIALS
Magnetic garnets Metallic ferromagnet Fe, Co, Ni Intermetallic compounds and alloys PtMnSb etc. Magnetic semiconductor CdMnTe etc. Superlattices Pt/Co, Fe/Au etc. Amorphous TbFeCo, GdFeCo etc. Granular Al2O3:Co
sample of neon gas at N.T.P .calculate dipole moent induced in each atom ,if the dielectric constant of neon at N.T.P is 1.000134 . find the atomic polarizibility of neon .
Q:- the number of atom in volume of one cubic meter of hydrogen gas is 9.81026 . the radius If hydrogen atom is 0.53 A0 .calculate polarizibility and relative permittivity.
Q:-a magnetic material has magnetization of2300A/m and produces a flux Density of 0.000314wb/m2 .calculate magnetizing force and relative permeability Of material. Q:- diamagnetic Al2O3 is subjected to an external magnetic field Of 105A/m .Evaluate magnetization and magnetic flux density in Al2O3. (susceptibility Of Al2O3 = 510-5 ) Q:-the susceptibility of paramagnetic FeCl3 is 3.710-3 at 270C what will be The value of its relative permeability r at 200K and 500K