Educational Research: CausalCausal-Comparative Studies

EDU 8603 Educational Research Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

Research...
 The

systematic application of a family of methods employed to provide trustworthy information about problems
an ongoing process based on many accumulated understandings and explanations that, when taken together lead to generalizations about problems and the development of theories

The basic steps of research...

Scientific and disciplined inquiry is an orderly process, involving:  recognition and identification of a topic to be studied (problem problem)  description and execution of procedures to collection information method) (method  objective data analysis  statement of findings (results results)

Research methods...
Quantitative Quantitative collects and analyzes numerical data obtained from formal instruments

Quantitative methods...
 descriptive

research (survey research)  correlational research  causal-comparative research (ex post facto research)  experimental research

 causal-comparative causal-

research (ex post (ex

facto research) at least two different groups are compared on a dependent variable or measure of performance (called the effect) because the independent variable (called the cause) has already occurred or cannot be manipulated

Research variables...
Independent Independent an activity of characteristic believed to make a difference with respect to some behavior (syn.) experimental variable, cause, treatment

dependent variable variable the change or difference occurring as a result of the independent variable (syn.) criterion variable, effect, outcome, posttest

A causal-comparative study causala study in which the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for pre-existing differences in groups of individuals called an ex post facto study because both the effect and the alleged cause have already occurred and must be studied in retrospect

Differences in causal-comparison causaland correlational studies



causal-comparative studies
attempt to identify cause-effect relationships

correlational studies
attempt to identify relationships

causal-comparative studies
involve two (or more) groups and one independent variable

correlational studies
typically involve two (or more) variables and one group

 

causal-comparative studies
involve making comparisons

correlational studies
involve establishing relationships

Differences in causal-comparison causaland experimental studies



causal-comparative studies
individuals are not randomly selected but selected because they belong to groups

experimental studies
individuals are randomly selected and assigned to two (or more) groups

causal-comparative studies
the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable

experimental studies
the researcher manipulates the independent variable

causal-comparative studies
the independent variable has already occurred and cannot be manipulated

experimental studies
the researcher manipulates the independent variable to determine its effects

causal-comparative studies
the random sample is selected from two already-existing populations

experimental studies
the random sample is selected from a single population

Conducting a causal-comparative causalstudy

1. select the problem 2. select participants and instrument 3. design and procedure 4. data analysis and interpretation

1. select the problem the researcher starts with an effect and seeks its causes the independent variable cannot or should not be manipulated

2. select the participants and instrument select samples representative of their respective populations and similar with respect to critical variables other than the independent variable comparison groups called comparison groups

3. design and procedure the performance of the groups is compared using some valid dependent variable measure instrument) (instrument lack of randomization, manipulation, and control are sources of weakness

 control

the process by which the researcher attempts to ensure that the findings are as free of researcher bias and error as possible

 types

of control random assignment of participants to groups pair-wise matching comparing homogeneous groups comparing homogeneous subgroups factorial analysis of variance analysis of covariance

 random

assignment of participants to

groups not possible in causal-comparative studies because the groups already exist and have already received the treatment

 pair-wise pair-

matching

first: find a participant in the second (third, fourth, etc.) group with the same or similar score on the control (nonmanipulated) variable as the participant in the first group second: if a participant in either group does not have a suitable match, the participant is eliminated from the study

 comparing

homogeneous groups control for extraneous variables that are homogeneous with respect to the extraneous variables limitation: lowers the number of participants in the study and, of course, limits the generalizability of the findings

 comparing

homogeneous subgroups

form subgroups within each group that represent all levels of the control (nonmanipulated) variable controls for the variable and also permits the researcher to determine whether the independent variable affects the dependent variable differently at different levels of the control (nonmanipulated) variable

 factorial

analysis of variance (FANOVA)

building the control (nonmanipulated) variable into the research design then use FANOVA to analyze the results to determine the effect of the independent and control (nonmanipulated) variable on the dependent variable, both separately and in combination

FANOVA allows the researcher to determine if there is an interaction between the independent variable and the dependent variable such that the independent variable operates differently at different levels of the independent variable building it into the research design

 analysis

of covariance (ANCOVA)

statistically adjusts initial group differences on a dependent variable for initial differences on some other variable related to performance on the dependent variable removes initial differences so that the results can be fairly compared as if the two groups started equally

 symbolic

representation of the basic causalcausal-comparative design

Group (E) (C) Independent Variable (X) Dependent Variable O O

Where: E (experimental group); C (control group); X (independent variable); O (dependent variable)

Group (E) (C)

Independent Variable (X1) (X2)

Dependent Variable O O

Where: E (experimental group); C (control group); X (independent variable); O (dependent variable)

4. Data analysis and interpretation researcher uses a variety of descriptive and inferential statistics: t-test mean analysis of standard variance deviation chi squared

 mean

the descriptive statistic indicating the average performance of an individual or group on a measure of some variable

 standard

deviation the descriptive statistic indicating the spread of a set of scores around the mean

 t-test

the inferential statistic indicating whether the means of two groups are significantly different from one another

 analysis

of variance (ANOVA) the inferential statistic indicating the presence of a significant difference among the means of three or more groups

 chi

squared ( 2) the inferential statistic indicating that there is a greater than expected difference among group frequencies

MiniMini-Quiz
 True

and false

causal-comparative studies attempt to identify the causeeffect relationships; correlational studies do not
True

causal-comparative studies typically involve two (or more) groups and one independent variable, whereas correlational studies typically involve two (or more) variables and one group
True

causal-comparative studies involve relation, whereas correlational studies involve cause

False

oftentimes, causal-comparative research is undertaken because the independent variable could be manipulated but should not
True

one of the most important reasons for conducting causal-comparative research is to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation
True

lack of control means that the researcher can and should manipulate the independent variable
False

each group in a causal-comparative study represents a different population

True

the more similar two groups are on all relevant variables except the independent variable, the stronger the study is
True

there is random assignment to treatment groups from a single population in causal-comparative studies
False

lack of randomization, manipulation of the independent variable, and control are all sources of weakness in a causal-comparative design
True

matching, comparing homogenous groups or subgroups, and covariate analysis are strategies that enable researchers to overcome problems of initial group differences on an extraneous variable
True

interpretation of the findings in a causal-comparative study requires considerable caution because the cause may be the effect and the effect may be the cause
True

extraneous variables or confounding factors may be the real cause of both the independent and dependent variables
True

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in the blank

groups selected for a causalcomparative study which differ on some independent variable and comparing them on some dependent variable
comparison groups

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in the blank

unexplained variables that influence a dependent variable

confounding factors extraneous variables

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in the blank

a method for controlling extraneous variables by comparing groups that are homogeneous with respect to the extraneous variable
comparing homogeneous groups

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in the blank

a method for controlling extraneous variables by forming subgroups within each group that represent all levels of the control variable
comparing homogeneous subgroups

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in the blank

a statistical tool to determine the effects of the independent variable and the control variable on the dependent variable, both separately and in combination
factorial analysis of variance

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in the blank

a statistical tool to adjust initial group differences on variables

analysis of covariance

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in the blank

the descriptive statistic indicating the average performance of a group on a measure of some variable
mean

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in the blank

the descriptive statistic indicating how clustered or spread out around the mean a set of scores is
standard deviation

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in the blank

the inferential statistic determining whether there is a significant difference between the means of two groups
t-test

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in the blank

the inferential statistic determining whether there is a significant difference between the means of three or more groups
analysis of variance

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in the blank

the inferential statistic determining whether there is a greater than expected difference among group frequencies
chi squared

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in the blank

activities by which a researcher endeavors to ensure that the results of a causal-comparative study are not tainted by extraneous variables
control

This module has focused on...

causal-comparative studies
which identify the cause, or reason, for existing differences in the behavior or status of groups

The next module will focus on...

experimental studies
...which test hypotheses to establish cause-and-effect relationships