2.

HIGHWAY

TRAFFIC

LOADS

Bridge design standards of different countries specify design loads which are meant to reflect or simulate the worst loading that can be caused on the bridge by traffic permitted and expected to pass over it. The specified bridge design loads take into account the regulations governing the weights and sizes of vehicles as well as the mixture of heavy and light vehicles, carriageway width and bridge spans.

For example, short spans, say up to 10m for bending moments and 6m for shear force, are governed by single axles or bogies with closely spaced multiple axles. The worst loading for spans over 20m is often caused by more than three vehicles. The worst vehicles are often the medium weight compact vehicles with two axles and not the heaviest vehicles with four, five or six axles. The criteria thus change from axle loads to worst vehicles as the span increases, with the mixture of vehicles in the traffic being an important factor for the longer spans.

When axles or single vehicles are the worst case, the effect of impact has to be allowed for, but several closely spaced vehicles represent a jam situation without significant impact. The adjacent lanes of short span bridges may all be loaded simultaneously with the worst axles or vehicles, but this is less likely for long span. There is the growing problem of illegal overweight vehicles weighing as much as 40% over their legal limits to deal with. We shall now see how some of the design codes specify and apply the primary live loads. We shall consider examples from the United Kingdom and the United States of America.

2.3.1 Design Live Loads in the UK In the United Kingdom, bridge design loading is specified in the Department of Transport Standard, BD37/88, which is the composite version of BS 5400 Part 2: 1978. BD 37/88 incorporates all the amendments that were to be made to the BS, due to changes observed in the normal traffic on most British roads, before joining the EU. The Standard refers to normal primary traffic loading as Type HA and abnormal vehicles as Type HB.

2.3.1.1

HA Loading

HA loading is represented by a theoretical loading model consisting of a uniformly distributed load (HAU) combined with a Knife-edge load (HAK) of 120 kN per lane placed across the width of each notional lane. (The knife edge load is an attempt to model the effect of a single localized heavy axle and is placed on the span where its effect is maximized for bending and shear). All bridges should be designed to resist this loading.

The uniformly distributed lane loading, W per linear metre of lane, is represented as a curve whose equation is W = 336 (1/L)2/3 of lane for loaded length in the direction of traffic up to 50m and W = 36 (1/L)1/10 of lane for loaded length in direction of traffic between 50m and 1600m. W for L > 1600 m should be agreed with the appropriate authority.

On loaded lengths of up to 30m, the loading represents the effects of closely spaced vehicles of 24t laden weight, i.e. trucks. Above this figure, the intensity gradually decreases to a constant value for loaded lengths of 380m or more. This longitudinal attenuation of loads is an attempt to model the real-life situation where the intensity of the 24t vehicles is likely to decrease as the loaded length increases.

The dynamic effect of moving vehicles on a bridge arises from imperfections in the surfacing, the short duration of loading, and the vehicles suspension systems. No separate calculation is required for impact as the standard loadings given include a 25% impact allowance. It should be noted that the HA loading curves cater for vehicles up to a gross weight of 40t, provided that enough axles and wheels are present to distribute the load so that the effects are the same.

2.3.1.1.1

Primary Single Wheel Load

A single wheel load (HAW) of 100KN can be placed on small areas of roadway to replace the effects of HAU and HAK. The contact area of the wheel on the road surface is uniformly distributed over a circle of 340mm or a square of side 300mm giving a contact stress of 1.1N/mm2.

This form of HA loading is used where the distribution of loads is small and so a member may be required to take virtually the full weight of a wheel. It is frequently applied to the top slabs between longitudinal beams in order to calculate the local effect of wheel loads.

2.3.1.2

HB (Primary Abnormal) Loads

The primary abnormal load is represented by a sixteen-wheeled vehicle with four axles, each having four wheels. Each pair of axles has a constant spacing of 1.8m and the distance between the pair of axles is variable. This is termed the HB vehicle and is shown in Fig. The weight of the vehicle is defined as a number of units dependent upon the expected gross axle load. The base unit is 10kN per axle. Thus 25 units of HB is equivalent to an axle load of 25 x 10 =250KN.

As such vehicles travel slowly, no impact allowance is made. Also, since movement of such vehicles usually involves a police escort, it is reasonable to assume that they occupy a single traffic lane alone. (On long bridges the occupied lane is assumed clear for 25m ahead and behind the vehicle, with normal HA loading occupying the remainder).

2.3.1.3 Primary Footway Loading A crowd loading of 5kN/m2 should be considered on footbridges, but on the road bridges having footpaths, the loading on the footpath is 4kN/m2. On loaded lengths greater than 36m, the footway loading is decreased to (5K) kN/m2 where
K = HAU lane loading for appropriate loaded length (in kN/m) x 10 L + 270

2.3.1.4

Secondary Braking Loads

This is considered as a group effect as far as HA loads are concerned, and assumes that the traffic in one lane brakes simultaneously over the entire loaded length. The effect is considered as a longitudinal force applied at the road surface. There is considerable evidence to suggest that the force is dissipated to a considerable extent in plan, and for most concrete and composite shallow deck structures it is reasonable to consider the load spread over the entire width of the deck.

The braking of an HB vehicle is an isolated effect distributed evenly between eight wheels of two axles only of the vehicle and is dissipated as for the HA load. The significance of the braking load on the structure is twofold, namely,

The design of the bridge abutments or piers where it is applied as an horizontal load at bearing level, thus increasing the bending moments in the stem and footings, and The design of the bridge bearings if composed of an elastomeric bearing resisting horizontal loading shear.

The Code design loads are shown below Braking Loads

Traffic Load

HA

8KN /m of loaded length + 250kN ( but 750KN)

HB

Nominal HB load x 0.25

2.3.1.5

Secondary Skidding Load

This is an accidental load consisting of a single point load of 250 KN acting horizontally in any direction at the road surface in a single notional lane. It is considered to act with the primary HA loading in combination 4 only. Collision Loads
Part Load

Parapet Supports

1.4 KN/m See Table 15 of Standard

2.3.1.5 Secondary Centrifugal Loads These loads are important only on elevated curved superstructures with a radius of less than 1000m supported on slender piers. BD 37/88 gives the centrifugal load as Fc=40,000/(r+150)

2.3.1.6

Partial Safety Factors

All loads specified in Standard BD 37/88 are nominal (that is, they are average values generally accepted as representative of the particular load being applied) and must be multiplied by partial safety factors in order to obtain design loads at either the serviceability or ultimate limit state. These are specified in Table 1 of Standard BD 37/88. A summary is given in the table.

2.3.1.7

Load Combinations

Not all of the loads can realistically be considered to act simultaneously, and Standard BD 37/88 specifies five combinations considered reasonable for design purposes.

There are three principal combinations (1 to 3) and two secondary combinations (4 and 5) . The secondary combinations are not to be considered as having less importance than the principal ones, though they are generally not critical in the design of short to medium span bridges.

Combination 1- consists of permanent loads and appropriate primary live loads Combination 2- consists of combination 1 loads, wind loads and temporary erection loads Combination 3- consists of combination 1 loads with effects arising from temperature changes and any erection loads

Combination 4 consists of permanent loads and secondary live loads. The secondary live loads are considered separately, but each load is taken with its appropriate primary live load Combination 5 consists of permanent loads and due to friction at the bearings

For most short to medium span bridges combination 1 usually governs design at the ultimate limit state; checks are then carried for combinations 3, 4 and 5 at the serviceability state.

For the dead loads, superimposed dead load Clauses 3.2.2 & 3.2.3 of Standard BD 37/88 should be consulted.

2.3.1.8

Application

of

Traffic

Loads

The live load is applied to the carriageway within notional lanes which do not necessarily correspond to the user traffic lanes. The reason for this is not clear. The following definitions apply;-

Carriageway (cl. 3.2.9.1) The carriageway is that part of the running surface which includes all traffic lanes, hard shoulders, hard strips and marker strips. Carriageway width is the width between raised kerbs. Traffic Lanes (cl.3.2.9.2) The lanes that are marked on running surface of the bridge and are normally used by traffic

Notional Lanes (cl.3.2.9.3) The notional parts of the carriageway used solely for the purpose of the applying the specified live loads. Notional lanes fall in the range of 2.3m 3.8m. The carriageway is divided into the least possible integral number of notional lanes having equal width as follows: 5.0m up to and including 7.5 m ------------ 2 >7.5m up to and including 10.95m -------- 3 >10.95m up to and including 14.60m ----- 4 >14.60m up to and including 18.25m ----- 5 >18.25m up to and including 21.90m ----- 6 Generally, number of notional lanes = carriageway width / 3.8 rounded up to the nearest integer.

2.3.1.8.1

HA Loading Alone

The full HA is applied to the first two notional lanes (cl.6.4.1) in the appropriate parts of the influence line for the element or member under consideration and HA applied to all other lanes, except where otherwise specified by the authority. HAK is applied once in the loaded length. is a factor which accounts for the attenuation of traffic loading in the transverse direction. Further information is given in Table 14 of the Standard BD 37/88.

.3.1.8.2 HA and HB Combined (cl. 6.4.2) Figure 13 of Standard BD 37/88 describes how to combine HA and HB loading for global analysis

LOAD FACTORS, fl
LOAD COMBINATION CLAUSE ULS SLS

Primary live loads HA

1 2, 3 1 2, 3

6.2.7 6.2.7 6.3.4 6.3.4

1.5 1.25 1.30 1.10

1.20 1.00 1.10 1.00

HB Traction/Braking HA HB Skidding Footway/ Cycle track

4 4 4 1 2, 3

6.6.5 6.6.5 6.7.4 7.1.3 7.1.3

1.25 1.10 1.25 1.50 1.25

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

2.3.2 US Specification and Loading Systems In the United States, highway loads are based on the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Standard Specification for Highway Bridges 1996. The specification stipulates two truck loading systems and a tandem (a pair of axles) of the military type, all of which must be considered separately with a constant lane load of 9.3kN/m, which is irrespective of loaded length.

2.3.2.1

Truck Loading Systems

The truck loading is divided into classes: the H loadings and the HS loading, both of which are shown in Fig 3.1.1. The H loadings represent an idealized standard two-axle truck; the HS loadings represent a twoaxle tractor and a single axle semi-trailer combination with variable spacing between the two rear axles (4.2m to 20m).

Each truck loading system consists of two vehicles: the H system has the HL15-93 and the HL20-93 trucks, while the HS system has the HLS 15-93 and HLS 20-93 trucks. The number following the standard truck specification HL or HLS refers to the gross weight of the truck in tons, and the affix indicates the year the loading was specified. In the Fig, W represents the total weight of the truck and load in ton for the HL trucks or the loaded weight of the tractor in the HLS loading. The tandem loading consist of a pair of axles which are 1.2m apart, each weighing 110kN.

2.3.2.2 Selection of Loadings The AASHTO specifications provide that bridges supporting interstate highways shall be designed for HLS 20- 93 loading or the tandem loading, whichever produces the greatest stress. For other highways that may carry heavy truck traffic the minimum live load shall be HLS 15-93.

2.3.2.3 Application of Loadings The lane together with standard truck or tandem loading shall be assumed to occupy a width of 3.0m. These loads shall be placed in 3.6m wide design traffic lanes spaced across the entire bridge roadway in numbers and positions required to produce the maximum stress. Roadway widths from 6m to 7.2m shall have two design lanes, each equal to one half the roadway width. Each loading shall be considered as a unit, and fractional load-lane widths or fractional trucks shall not be used.

Where maximum stresses are produced in any member by loading any number of traffic lanes simultaneously, the following multiple presence factors are to be used to modify the live load stresses according to the number of design traffic lanes: Single lane 1.2 Two lanes 1.0 Three lanes 0.85 Four lanes and above 0.65

The multiple presence factor takes account of the improbable coincidence of the design truck being present in all the lanes at the same time. The minimum distance between the wheels of two adjacent trucks is 1.2m. The minimum distance from the centre of the wheel to the face of parapet is 300mm.

2.3.2.4 Dynamic Effects Dynamic effects due to irregularities in the road surface and different suspension systems magnify the static effects of the live loads. This is taken care of by an impact factor called dynamic load allowance (DLA) defined as DLA=Ddyn / Dsta Where, Dsta is the static deflection under live loads, and Ddyn is the additional dynamic deflection under live loads.

Dynamic live load effect = (static live load effect) x (1+DLA). (1.33 typical for truck loading) Values of DLA are given in the AASHTO Specification for individual bridge components.

2.3.2.5 Longitudinal Loads According to the specifications, the braking force shall be taken as the greater of 25% of the axle weight of the design truck or design tandem OR 5% of the design truck plus lane load or 5% of the design tandem plus lane load. The braking force is placed in all design lanes, which are considered to be loaded, with traffic heading in the same direction.

The forces are assumed to act horizontally at a height 1.8m above the roadway surface in either longitudinal direction to cause the extreme force effects.

2.3.2.6 Partial Load Factors Design is carried out based on either permissible stresses or limit state philosophy with partial safety factors. The following factors were obtained from work carried out for the Federal Highway Administration [1] based on AASHTO-LRFD (Load and Resistance Factor Design) Specification.

2.3.2.6.1 Load Factors Load Adverse Parapet / Slab 1.25 Live Load 1.75 Surfacing (FWS) 1.5

Beneficial 0.9 0.65

(FWS = Future Wearing Surface)

2.3.2.6.2 Strength limit state Extreme

Resistance Factor 0.9 1.0

(vehicular collision with parapets)