HEAT TRANSFER

MEM Department NSYSU

CHAPTER 2
Heat Conduction
Shou-Shing Hsieh
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 2
2.1 Introduction
Conduction heat transfer is the process by which heat
flows through a solid. In the conduction mode, heat is
transferred through a complex submicroscopic mechanism
in which atoms interact by elastic and inelastic collisions to
propagate() the energy from regions of higher to
regions of lower temperature. From an engineering point of
view there is no need to delve() into the complexities
of the mechanisms, because the rate of heat propagation can
be predicted by Fourier's law, which incorporates the
mechanistic features of the process into a physical property
known as the thermal conductivity.
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 3
2.2 The Conduction Equation
In this section the general conduction equation is derived . A
solution of this equation, subject given initial and boundary
conditions, yields the temperature distribution in a solid
system. Once the temperature distribution is known, the heat
transfer rate in the conduction mode can be evaluated by
applying Fourier's law [Eq. (1.1)].
Classification of heat transfer problem
unsteady or transient
steady-state
one-dimensional
two- or three-dimensional
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 4
2.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates()
Derive the conduction equation for a one-dimensional,
rectangular coordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.1.
assume , and the conductivity k, density , and
specific heat c of the solid are all constant.
T=T(x,t)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 5
2.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates (continued)
Conservation of energy for the control volume of Fig. 2.1 can
be stated as follows:
the rate of energy generation per unit volume inside the C.V.
Rate of conduction
into C.V.
Rate of heat
generation into C.V.
Rate of heat conduction
out of C.V.
Rate of energy
storage inside C.V.
+ +
=
(2.1)
)
G
x x x
x
T x ,t
T T
2
k q x k Axc
x x t
+
+

+ A = +

&
: q
G

(2.2)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 6
2.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates (continued)
Dividing Eq. (2.2) by the C.V. and rearranging, we obtain
In the limit as , the first term on the left side of Eq. (2.3)
can be expressed in the form
The right side of Eq. (2.3) can be expanded in a Taylor series as
A x
x x x
G
T T
x
T(x ,t)
x x
2
k q c
x t
+

+

+ =

&
(2.3)
x dx x
x
T T T
dx
x x x x
+

+
= +


' '
x 0
(2.4)
2
x
T(x ,t)
T T x
2
t t x t 2
x
x
+

= + +

L
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 7
Equation (2.2) then becomes, to the order of ,
Three-dimensional form of the conduction equation then
becomes (see Fig. 2.2)
x
2
G
2
T T
k q c
x t

+ =

&
(2.5)
The net rate of
heat conduction
into C.V. per unit
volume
The rate of
energy
generation per
unit volume
inside C.V.
Rate of
increase in
internal energy
+ =
2 2 2
G
2 2 2
q T T T 1 T
x y z k t

+ + + =

&
(2.6)
2.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates (continued)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 8
where is the thermal diffusivity
k

c
=
(2.7)
2.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates (continued)

HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 9
If the temperature is not a function of time, the system is in
the steady state and does not store any energy. The steady-
state form of a three-dimensional conduction equation in
rectangular coordinates is
If the system is in the steady state and no heat is generated
internally, the conduction equation is
2.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates (continued)
0
k
q
z
T
y
T
x
T
G
2
2
2
2
2
2
!

(2.8)
0
z
T
y
T
x
T
2
2
2
2
2
2
=

(2.9)
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
T T T
T 0
x y z

+ + = \ =

(2.10)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 10
2.2.2 Dimensionless Form
The conduction equation in the form of Eq. (2.6) is
dimensional. It is often more convenient to express this
equation in a form where each term is dimensionless. In the
development of the dimensionless equation we will identify
dimensionless groups that govern the heat conduction
process. We begin by defining a dimensionless temperature
as the ratio
a dimensionless x coordinate as the ratio
r
T

T
! (2.11)
r
x

L
!
(2.12)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 11
2.2.2 Dimensionless Form (continued)
and a dimensionless time as the ratio
where T
r
, L
r
, and t
r
represent a reference temperature, a
reference length, and a reference time.
If the definitions of the dimensionless temperature, x
coordinate, and time are substituted into Eq. (2.5), we obtain
the conduction equation in the nondimensional() form
r
t

t
! (2.13)
2 2 2
G r r
2
r r
q L L
kT t

+ !

&
(2.14)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 12
2.2.2 Dimensionless Form (continued)
The reciprocal of the dimensionless group ( ) is called the
Fourier number, designated by the symbol Fo :
Fourier number is the ratio of the rate of heat transfer by
conduction to the rate of energy storage in the system.
The other dimensionless group appearing in Eq. (2.14) is
a ratio of internal heat generation per unit time to heat
conduction through the volume per unit time. We will use the
symbol
2
r
r
L
t
r
2
r
t
Fo
L
! (2.15)
2
G r
G
r
q L
Q
kT
!
&
&
(2.16)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 13
The one-dimensional form of the conduction equation
expressed in dimensionless form now becomes
If steady state prevails, the right side of Eq. (2.17) becomes
zero.
2.2.2 Dimensionless Form (continued)
2
G
2
1
Q
Fo

+ =

&
(2.17)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 14
2.2.3 Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates()
Eq. (2.6) was derived for a rectangular coordinate system.
Although, the generation and energy storage terms are
independent of the coordinate system, the heat conduction
term depend on geometry and therefore on the coordinate
system. The dependence on the coordinate system used to
formulate the problem can be removed by replacing the heat
conduction terms with the Laplacian operator
The differential form of the Laplacian is different for each
coordinate system.
2
G
q 1 T
T
k t

&
(2.18)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 15
For a general transient three-dimensional problem in the
cylindrical coordinates shown in Fig.2.3.
2.2.3 Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates (continued)
)
T T r, ,z,t c !
)
G G
q q r, ,z,t c !
& &
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 16
Conduction equation in cylindrical coordinates becomes
If the heat flow in a cylindrical shape is only in the radial
direction, T=T(r,t)
If steady
2.2.3 Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates (continued)
2 2
G
2 2 2
q 1 T 1 T T 1 T
r
r r r r z k t c

+
!


' '
&
(2.19)
G
q 1 T 1 T
r
r r r k t

+
!


' '
&
(2.20)
G
q 1 T
r 0
r r r k

+
!


' '
&
(2.21)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 17
When there is no internal energy generation and the
temperature is a function of the radius, the steady-state
conduction equation for cylindrical coordinates is
For spherical coordinates, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
2.2.3 Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates (continued)
d dT
r 0
dr dr
+
!

' '
(2.22)
)
T T r,, ,t c !
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 18
The general form of the conduction equation in spherical
coordinates is
2
2
G
2 2 2 2
q 1 T 1 T 1 T 1 T
r sin
r r r r sin r sin k t c

+ +
!


' ' ' '
&
(2.23)
2.2.3 Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates (continued)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 19
2.3 Steady Heat Conduction in
Simple Geometries
In this section we will demonstrate how to
obtain solutions to the conduction equations derived
in the preceding section for relatively simple
geometric configurations with and without internal
heat generation.
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 20
Plane wall with and without heat generation
if steady, 1D, no heat generation,T = T(x) only
no internal, reduces to
integrating this O.D.E twice.
2.3.1 Plane Wall with and without
Generation
2 2 2
G
2 2 2
q T T T 1 T
x y z k t

!

&
2
2
d T
0
dx
!
(2.24)
T(x)=C
1
x+C
2
(2.25)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 21
with B.C. T(x = 0) = T
1
, T(x = L) = T
2
we get
The above relation agrees with the linear temperature
distribution deduced by integrating Fouriers law,
2.3.1 Plane Wall with and without
Generation (continued)
1
1 2
T x
L
T T
T(x) +

=
(2.26)
dx
dT
kA q
k
=
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 22
with heat generation, which is uniform = constant, as
shown in Fig.2.5.
2.3.1 Plane Wall with and without
Generation (continued)
G
q

HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 23
If the thermal conductivity is constant, Eq (2.5) reduces to
Integrating this equation once gives
and a second integration yields
where C
1
, C
2
are constants, determined by boundary
conditions.
2.3.1 Plane Wall with and without
Generation (continued)
G
2
2
q
dx
T(x) d
k =
(2.27)
1
G
C x
k
q
dx
dT(x)
+ =

(2.28)
2
G
1 2
q
T(x) x C x C
2k
= + +
&
(2.29)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 24
B.C.
If the two surface temperatures are equal, T
1
= T
2
,
This temperature distribution is parabolic and symmetric about
the center plane with a maximum at x = L/2, as shown in Fig.
2.6.
with T(x = 0) = T
1
T(x = L) = T
2
2.3.1 Plane Wall with and without
Generation (continued)
2
G G 2 1
1
q q L T T
T(x) x x x T
2k L 2k

!
& &
(2.30)
1
2
G
T
L
x
L
x
2k
L q
T(x)

'
+

'

!

(2.31)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 25
For the symmetric boundary conditions the
temperature in dimensionless form is
2.3.1 Plane Wall with and without
Generation (continued)
2
L
at x
8k
L q
T T
2
G
1 max
= + =

T
2
L
0
dx
dT
!
T
1
FIGURE 2.6 Temperature distribution
with T
1
=T
2
.
(2.32)

'
+

'

2
1 max
1
L
x
L
x
4
T T
T T(x)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 26
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical
Shapes without Heat Generation
Radial heat flow through a cylindrical shell, as shown in Fig.
2.7.
Heat conduction equation:
0
dr
dT
r
dr
d
!

'
+

'

(2.33)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 27
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
Integrate
Boundary condition
C lnr C T
r
C
dr
dT
C
dr
dT
r
2 1
1
1
!
! !
r=r
i
, T=T
i
r=r
o
, T=T
o
C lnr C T
C lnr C T
2 o 1 o
2 i 1 i
!
!
o i o i
1
o i o i
T T T T
C
lnr lnr ln( r r )

! !

o i
2 i i
o i
T T
C T lnr
ln (r r )

!
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 28
Thus
The temperature distribution, written in dimensionless
form, is therefore
The rate of heat transfer by conduction through the cylinder of
length L is , from Eq. (1.1).
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
o i o i
i i
o i o i
T T T T
T lnr T lnr
ln (r r ) ln (r r )

= +
i i
o i o i
T(r) T ln (r r )
T T ln (r r )

(2.34)
i o i o 1
r
o i
o i
T T T T C dT
q kA k(2rL) 2Lk
ln (r r )
dr r ln (r r )
2Lk

= = = =
(2.35)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 29
Thermal resistance to heat flow by conduction through a
cylinder of length L, inner radius r
i
, and outer radius r
o
is
The principles developed for a plane wall with conduction and
convection in series can also be applied to a long hollow
cylinder such as a pipe or a tube. For example, as shown in Fig.
2.8, suppose that a hot fluid flows through a tube that is
covered by insulating material. The system loses heat to the
surrounding air through an average heat transfer coefficient .
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
o i
th
ln (r r )
R
2Lk
=
(2.36)
c,o
h
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 30
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 31
Denoting the hot-fluid temperature by T
h,
and the
environmental air temperature by T
c,
, the rate of flow is
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
h, c,
4
3 2 2 1
th
1 c,i 1 A B c,o 3
T T
T
q
ln (r r ) ln (r r ) 1 1
R
h 2 r L 2 k L 2 k L h 2 r L
g g

! !

(2.37)
Overall heat transfer coefficient is defined by the equation
)
cold hot total
T T UA T UA q ! ! (2.38)
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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 32
4
3 2 2 1
th
1 c,i i A B c,o o
1 1
UA
ln (r r ) ln (r r ) 1 1
R
h A 2 k L 2 k L h A
= =
+ + +

(2.39)
Choose A=A
o
=2 r
3
L
Thus
3 3 2 1 3 3 2
1 c,i A B c,o
1
U
r r ln( r r ) r ln( r r ) 1
r h k k h
=
+ + +
(2.40)
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)

HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 33
Example 2.1
Compare the heat loss from an insulated and an uninsulated
copper pipe under the following conditions. The pipe (k = 400
W/mK) has an internal diameter of 10cm and an external
diameter of 12cm. Saturated() steam flows inside the pipe at
110 C. The pipe is located in a space at 30 C and the heat
transfer coefficient on its outer surface is estimated to be 15
W/m
2
K. The insulation available to reduce heat losses is 5 cm
thick and its conductivity is 0.20 W/mK. (hint: heat transfer
coefficient on its inter surface is 10000 W/m
2
K ).
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 34
Example 2.1 (continued)
(sol) The heat loss per unit length is
Since R
1
and R
2
are negligibly small compared to R
3
s
1 2 3
T T q
L R R R
g

=
+ +
1 i
2
i c,i
1 1
R R 0.000318 m /W
2r h (2)(0.05m)(10000 W/m )
= = = =
0 i
2
pipe
ln(r /r ) 0.182
R 0.00007 m /W
2k (2)(400 W/m )
= = =
3 o
2
o c,o
1 1
R R 0.177 m /W
2r h (2)(0.06m)(15 W/m )
= = = =
q 80
452 W/m uninsulated pipe
L 0.177
= =
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 35
Example 2.1 (continued)
For the insulated pipe the system corresponds to that shown in
Fig. 2.8; hence, we must add a fourth resistance between r
1
and
r
3.
Also, the outer convection resistance changes to
The total thermal resistance per meter length is therefore 0.578
mK/W and the heat loss is 80/0.578 = 138 W/m. Adding
insulation will reduce the heat loss from the steam by 70%.
4
ln(11/6)
R 0.482 mK/W
(2)(0.2 W/mK)
! !
o
2
1
R 0.096 mK/W
(2)(0.11m)(15 W/m K)
! !
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 36
For a hollow sphere ,without heat generation. (see Fig. 2.10)
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
T = T
i
at r = r
i
T = T
o
at r = r
o
T = T(r), 1D, steady
k = uniform
0 q
G
=

HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 37
The conduction equation in spherical coordinates is
The temperature distribution is
The rate of heat transfer through the spherical shell is
The thermal resistance
2.3.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Shapes
without Heat Generation (continued)
)
0
dr
rT d
r
1
dr
dT
r
dr
d
r
1
2
2
2
2
! !

'
+

'

(2.41)
B.C. T = T
i
at r = r
i
; T=T
o
at r = r
o
)
o i
i o i
o i
r r
T(r) T T T 1
r r r
+
!

' '
(2.42)
)
2
i o
k
o i o i
T T T
q 4kr
r r r 4k r r

! !

o i
th
o i
r r
R
4k r r

!
(2.43)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 38
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with
Heat Generation
The energy equation for an annular element (Fig. 2.11) formed
between a fictitious inner cylinder of radius r and a fictitious
outer cylinder of radius r + dr is
dr r
dr r G
r
r
dr
dT
kA rdr L2 q
dr
dT
kA

!

FIGURE 2.11
Where A
r
=2 rL and A
r+dr
=2 (r+dr)L
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 39
Relating the temperature gradient at r + dr to the temperature
gradient a r , we obtain
Integration of Eq. (2.44) can best be accomplished by noting
that
and rewriting it in the form
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
2
G
2
dT d T
rq k r
dr dr
+
= +

' '
&
(2.44)
2
2
d dT dT d T
r = +r
dr dr dr dr
+

' '
G
d dT
q r k r
dr dr
+
=

' '
&
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 40
This is similar to the result obtained previously by
simplifying() the general conduction equation [see Eq.
(2.21)]. Integration yields
Another integration yields the temperature distribution
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
1
2
G
C
dr
dT
kr
2
r
q !

1
dT
B.C. 0 at r 0 C 0
dr
! ! !
2
G
2
q r
T C
4k
!
&
2
G 0
0 , 0 2 0
q r
B.C. r r T T C T
4k
! ! !
&
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 41
The temperature distribution is therefore
The maximum temperature at r=0 , T
max
, is
In dimensionless form Eq. (2.45) becomes
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
2
2
G
0
0
q r r
T=T + 1-
4k r

+



' '

&
(2.45)
2
0
G
0 max
r
4k
q
T T

!
(2.46)
2
0 0 max
0
r
r
1
T T
T T(r)

'
+

'

(2.47)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 42
For a hollow cylinder with uniformly distributed heat sources
and specified surface temperatures, the boundary conditions
are
It is left as an exercise to verify that for this case the
temperature distribution is given by
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
T = T
i
at r = r
i
(inside surface)
T = T
o
at r = r
o
(outside surface)
)
)
)
)

+ + + =
i o
2 2
o
G
i o
o
2 2
o
G
o
T T r r
4k
q
r r ln
r r ln
r r
4k
q
T T(r)

(2.48)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 43
If a solid cylinder is immersed in a fluid at a specified
temperature T

and the convection that transfer coefficient at

the surface is specified and denoted by , the surface
temperature at r
o
is not known a priori. The boundary
condition for this case requires that the heat conduction from
the cylinder equal the rate of convection at the surface, or
Using this conduction to evaluate the constants of integration
yields for the dimensionless temperature distribution
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
)
g
=
= T T h
dr
dT
k
o
r r
o
c
c
h

'
+

'

g g
g
2
o
o c
c
o G
r
r
1
k
r h
2
T h 4
r q
T
T T

(2.49)
HEAT TRANSFER
MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 44
In the preceding( ) equations we have two
dimensionless parameters of importance in conduction. The
first is the heat generation parameter , and the
other is the Biot number, Bi = , which appears in
problems with simultaneous conduction and convection
modes of heat transfer.
Physically()
g
T h 4 r q
c o G

k r h
o c
)
) resistance convection
resistance thermal conduction
h 1
k r
k
r h
Bi
c
o o c
= = =
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
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ppt. 45
o
k c
c
r 1
(a) when R 0 or R
k h
+
! p ! p g

' '
0 Bi p
o
k c
c
r 1
(b) when R or R 0
k h
+
! pg ! p

' '
g p Bi
T

(a) (b)
2.3.3 Long Solid Cylinder with Heat
Generation (continued)
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2.4 Extended Surfaces()
The problems considered in this section are encountered()
in practice when a solid of relatively small cross-sectional area
protrudes() from a large body into a fluid at a
different temperature. Such extended surfaces have wide
industrial application as fins attached to the walls of heat
transfer equipment in order to increase the rate of heating or
cooling.
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2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross Section
As a simple illustration, consider a pin fin having the shape of
a rod whose base is attached to a wall at surface temperature
T
s
(Fig. 2.12). The fin is cooled along its surface by a fluid at
temperature T

. The fin has a uniform cross-sectional area A

and it made of a material having uniform conductivity k; the
heat transfer coefficient between the surface of the fin and the
fluid is . We will assume that transverse() temperature
gradients are so small that the temperature at any cross section
of the rod is uniform, that is , .
c
h
only T(x) T !
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FIGURE 1.12
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
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ppt. 49
Let's derive an equation for temperature distribution. Under
steady-state conditions,
where P is the perimeter of the pin and Pdx is the pin surface
area between x and x + dx.
If k and are uniform, Eq. (2.50) simplifies to the form
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
) )
g

! T x T Pdx h
dx
dT
kA
dx
dT
kA
c
dx x x
c dx x k, x k,
dq q q !

(2.50)
c
h
) . J 0 T x T
kA
P h
dx
T d
c
2
2
!
g
(2.51)
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ppt. 50
Let (x)=T(x)T

, and transformEq. (2.51) into the form

where
Equation (2.52) is a linear, homogeneous, second-order
differential equation whose general solution is of the form
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
0 m
dx
d
2
2
2
=

(2.52)
2
c
m h kA =
)
mx
2
mx
1
e C e C x

=
(2.53)
)
s s
T T 0, x i B.C. = =
g
(ii) physical conduction at the end of the fin
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2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
1. L , then = 0 at x
2. Insulated boundary
L at x 0
dx
d
! !
3. Fixed temperature at the end
L at x
L
! !
4. The tip loss heat by convection
L
L c,
L x
h
dx
d
k !
!
We will treat the following four case:

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Figure 2.13 illustrates schematically() the cases
described by these conditions at the tip.
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
FIGURE 2.13
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Case 1
Since the heat conducted across the root of the fin must
equal the heat transferred by convection from the surface
of the rod to the fluid,
Differentiating Eq. (2.54) and substituting the result for
x=0 into Eq. (2.55) yields
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
mx
s
e (x)

= (2.54)
. J
dx (x) P h
dx T T(x) P h
dx
dT
kA q
0
c
0
c
0 x
fin

g
g
g
=
=
= =
(2.55)
. J
s
c
m)0 (
fin
PAk h (0)e m kA q = =

(2.56)
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The same result is obtained by evaluating the convection
heat flow from the surface of the rod:
Case 2
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
s
c
0
mx
s
c
mx
s
0
c
fin
PAk h e
m
P h
dx e P h q !

! !
g

g

0 e mC e mC
dx
d
L at x B.C.) (insulated 0
dx
dT
mL
2
mL
1
L x
! !

'
+

'

! !

!
2 1 s
s s
C C
0 at x T T (i) B.C.
! p
! | !
g
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Substituting the above relations for C
1
and C
2
into Eq. (2.53)
gives the temperature distribution
The heat loss from the fin can be found by substituting()
the temperature gradient at the root into Eq. (2.55)
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
2mL
s
2
2mL
s
1
e 1

C ,
e 1

! @
(mL) cosh
x) m(L cosh

e 1
e

e 1
e

s
2mL
mx
2mL
mx
s

'
+

'

(2.57)

tanh(mL) PAk h
dx
dT
kA q
s
c
0 x
fin
! !
!
(2.58)
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Case 3 and case 4 see table 2.1 for the results.
2.4.1 Fins of Uniform Cross
Section (continued)
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ppt. 57
Example 2.2
An experimental device that produces excess heat is passively
cooled. The addition of pin fins to the casing of this device is
being considered to augment the rate of cooling. Consider a
copper pin fin 0.25 cm in diameter that protrudes from a wall
at 95 C into ambient air at 25 C as shown in Fig. 2.14.
The heat transfer is mainly by natural convection with a
coefficient equal to 10W/m
2
K. Calculate the heat loss,
assuming that (a) the fin is infinitely long, and (b) the fin is
2.5 cm long and the coefficient at the end is the same as
around the circumference. Finally, (c) how long would the fin
have to be for the infinitely long solution to be correct within 5
percent?
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Example 2.2 (continued)
(sol)
The following assumptions will be made:
1. Thermal conductivity does not change with temperature.
2. Steady state prevails.
3. Radiation is negligible.
4. The convection heat transfer coefficient
is uniform over the surface of the fin.
5. Conduction along the fin is
one-dimensional.
FIGURE 2.14
2.2
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Example 2.2 (continued)
(a) From Eq. (2.56) the heat loss for the infinitely long fin is
(b) The equation for the heat loss from the finite fin is case 4
in Table 2.1:
(c) For the two solutions to be with in 5%, it is necessary that
) W 865 . 0 T T Ak h q
s
c
in
= =
g
)
)
)
W 140 . 0
sinmL mk h coshmL
coshmL mk h sinhmL
T T kA h q
c
c
s c in
=
+
+
=
g
)
)
cm 28.3 L or 8 . 1 mL
95 . 0
sinmL mk h coshmL
coshmL mk h sinhmL
c
c
> >
>
+
+
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2.4.2 Fin Selection and Design
Fins come in many shapes and forms, some of which are
shown in Fig. 2.15. The selection of fins is made on the basis
of thermal performance and cost.
FIGURE 2.15 Schematic diagrams of different types of fins
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The heat transfer effectiveness of a fin is measured by a
parameter called the fin efficiency() , which is
defined is
Using Eq. (2.58), the fin efficiency for a circular pin fin of
diameter D and length L with an insulated end is
whereas for a fin of rectangular cross section (length L and
thickness t) and an insulated end that efficiency is
2.4.2 Fin Selection and Design (continued)
f
actural heat transfered by fin

heat that would have been transfered

if entire fin were at the base temperature
=
f
2
f
2
tanh 4L h k
4L h k
= (2.59)
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If a rectangular fin is long , wide, and thin, , and the
heat loss from the end can be taken into account approximately
by increasing L by t/2 and assuming that the end is insulated.
This approximation keeps the surface area from which heat is
lost the same as in the real case, and the fin efficiency then
becomes
where
2
f
2
tanh L h kA

L h kA
=
2.4.2 Fin Selection and Design (continued)
P A 2 t <
(2.60)
2
c
2
c
tanh 2L h kt

2L h kt
=
(2.61)
c
L =(L+t/2)
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2.5 Multidimensional()
Steady Conduction
We shall now consider some methods for analyzing
conduction in two- and three-dimensional systems. The
emphasis( ) will be placed on two-dimensional
problems because they are less cumbersome()
to solve, yet they illustrate the basic methods of analysis
for three-dimensional systems. Heat conduction in two-
and three-dimensional systems can be treated by analytic,
graphic(), analogic(), and numerical methods.
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2D system without heat sources, steady state, k=constant
2.5.1 Analytic Solution

y) T(x, T
problems to
according speci ied B.C.
0
y
T
x
T
G.E.
2
2
2
2
=
=

(2.62)
heat flow per unit area (or heat flux).
y
T
k
A
q
q
x
T
k
A
q
q
y
y
x
x

'
+

'

= ' '

'
+

'

=
' '
T k q = ' '
T
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Consider a thin rectangular plate, free of heat sources and
insulated at the top and bottomsurfaces (Fig. 2.16). Since
is assumed to be negligible, the temperature is a
function of x and y only. If the thermal conductivity is
uniform, the temperature distribution must satisfy Eq. (2.62), a
linear and homogeneous partial differential equation that can
be integrated by assuming a product solution for T(x,y) of the
form
T = XY
where X = X(x) only, Y = Y(y), a function of y alone.
Substituting Eq. (2.63) into Eq. (2.62) yields
2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
z T
(2.63)
2 2
2
2 2
1 X 1 Y

X x Y y

= =

(2.64)
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2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
FIGURE 2.16
2
2
2
2
2
2
X
X 0
x
Y
Y 0
y

+ =

(2.65)
(2.66)
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ppt. 67
The general solution to Eq. (2.65) is
and the general solution to Eq. (2.66) is
and therefore, from Eq. (2.63)
where A, B, C, and D are constants to be evaluated from the
boundary conditions. As shown in Figure 2.16, the boundary
conditions to be satisfied are
2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
X Acosx Bsinx = +
y y
Y Ce De

= +
) De (Ce x) Bsin x (Acos XY T
y y
+ + = =

(2.67)
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B.C. (1) T=0 at y=0
(2) T=0 at x=0
(3) T=0 at x=L
(4) T=T
m
sin( x/L) at y=b
(1)p(AcosPx+Bsin Px)(C+D)=0 pC+D=0
(2) pA(Ce
- Py
+De
Py
)=0 pA=0
(3) p(AcosPL+Bsin PL)(Ce
- Py
+De
Py
)=0
pBCsin PL (e
- Py
- e
Py
)=0
or 2BCsin PLsinh Py=0
2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)

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2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
psin PL=0 or P=n /L where n=1,2,3...
1,2,3... n y
L
n
xsinh
L
n
sin C T so.
n n
= =
Satisfies the G.E. & B.C. (1)(2)(3)
y
L
n
xsinh
L
n
sin C T
1 n
n
g
=
=
Where C
n
s are constants to be determined by
the B.C. (4)
n m
n 1
n n x
C sin xsinh b T sin
L L L
g
=
=

(2.68)

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The corresponding temperature field is shown in Fig. 2.17.
If the temperature at y = b is T(x,b) = F(x)
2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
0,..... C 0, C ,
L
b
sinh
T
C
3 2
m
1
! ! !
The solution
)
L
x
sin
L
b
sinh
L
y
sinh
T y) T(x,
m

'
+

'

!
(2.69)
)
L
0
n 1
ny
sinh
2 n nx
L
T sin x F x sin dx
nb
L L L
sinh
L
g
!
'
+
' ' !

' '

(2.70)
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2.5.1 Analytic Solution (continued)
FIGURE 2.17
2.16
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2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors()
The graphic method presented in this section can rapidly yield
a reasonable good estimate of the temperature distribution and
heat flow in geometrically complex two-dimensional systems,
but its application is limited to problems with isothermal and
insulated boundaries. The objective of a graphic solution is to
construct a network consisting of isotherms (lines of constant
temperature) and constant-flux lines (lines of constant heat
flow). The flux lines are analogous to streamlines in a potential
fluid flow, that is , they are tangent() to the direction of
heat flow at any point. Consequently, no heat can flow across
the constant-flux lines. The isotherms are analogous to
constant-potential lines, and heat flows perpendicular to them.
Thus, lines of constant temperature and lines of constant heat
flux
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intersect at right angles. To obtain the temperature distribution
one first prepares a scale model and then draws isotherms and
flux lines freehand(), by trial() and error,
until they form a network of curvilinear() squares.
Then a constant amount of heat flows between any two flux
lines can be found. The procedure is illustrated in Fig. 2.18 for
a corner section of unit depth with faces ABC at temperature
T
1
, faces FED at temperature T
2
, and faces CD and AF
insulated. Figure 2.18(a) shows the scale model, and Fig.
2.18(b) shows the curvilinear network of isotherms and flux
lines. It should be noted that the flux lines emanating()
from isothermal boundaries are perpendicular to the boundary,
except when they come from a corner. Flux lines leading to or
from a corner of an isothermal boundary bisect() the
angle between the surfaces forming the corner.
2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
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2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
FIGURE 2.18
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ppt. 75
A graphic solution, like an analytic solution of a heat
conduction problem described by the Laplace equation and the
associated boundary condition, is unique. Therefore, any
curvilinear network, irrespective of the size of the squares, that
satisfies the boundary conditions represents the correct
solution. For any curvilinear square [for example, see Fig.
2.18(c)] the rate of heat flow is given by Fourier's law:
This heat flow will remain the same across any square within
any one heat flow lane from the boundary at T
1
to the
boundary T
2
. The T across any one element in the heat flow
lane is therefore
2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
T k
l
T
) 1 l ( k q ( ! v ( ! (
(
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where N is number of temperature increments between the two
boundaries at T
1
and T
2
. The total rate of heat flow from the
boundary at T
2
to the boundary at T
1
equals the sum of the heat
flow through all the lanes. According to the above relations,
the heat flow rate is the same through all lanes since it is
independent of the size of the squares in a network of
curvilinear squares. The total rate of heat transfer can therefore
be written
where is the rate of heat flow through the nth lane, and M
is the number of heat flow lanes.
2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
2 1
T T
T=
N

(
)
n=M
n 2 1 overall
n=1
M M
q q k T T k T
N N
! ( ! ! (

(2.71)
n
q (
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In any two-dimensional system in which heat is
transferred from one surface at T
1
to another at T
2
, the rate of
heat transfer per unit depth depends only on the temperature
difference , the thermal conductivity k, and the
ratio M/N. This ratio depends on the shape of the system and is
called the shape factor , S. The rate of heat transfer can thus be
written
When the grid consists of curvilinear squares, values of S
for several shape of practical significance are summarized in
Table 2.2.
2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
1 2 overall
T T T = A
overall
q kS T = A (2.72)
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2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
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Example 2.3
A long, 10-cm-OD pipe is buried with its centerline 60 cm
below the surface in solid having a thermal conductivity of 0.4
W/mK, as shown in Fig. 2.19 (a) prepare a curvilinear square
network for this system and calculate the heat loss per meter
length if the pipe surface temperature is 100C and the soil
surface is at 20 C, (b) Compare the result from part (a) with
that obtained using the appropriate shape factor S.
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Example 2.3 (continued)
FIGURE 2.19
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Example 2.3 (continued)
FIGURE 2.20
2.3
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Example 2.3 (continued)
(Sol)
(a) The curvilinear square network for the system is shown in
Fig. 2.20. Because of symmetry, only half of this heat flow
field needs to be plotted. There are 18 heat flow lanes leading
from the pipe to the surface, and each lane consists of 8
curvilinear squares. The shape factor is therefore
and the rate of heat flow per meter is, from Eq. (2.72)
25 . 2
8
18
S ! !
W/m 72 20)(K) - 5)(100 W/mK)(2.2 (0.4 q ! !
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Example 2.3 (continued)
(b) From Table 2.2
and the rate of heat flow per meter length is
The reason for the difference in the calculated the heat loss is
that the potential field in Fig. 2.20 has a finite number of flux
lines and isotherms and is therefore only approximate.
98 . 1
18 . 3
2
) 10 / 120 ( cosh
) 1 ( 2
S
1
= =
x
=

W/m 4 . 3 6 20)(K) 8)(100 W/mK)(1.9 (0.4 q = =

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For a three-dimensional wall , as in a furnace, separate
shape factors are used to calculate the heat flow through the
edge() and corner sections. When all the interior
dimensions are greater than one-fifth of the wall thickness,
S
wall
= A/L S
edge
= 0.54D S
corner
= 0.15L
where A = inside area of wall
L = wall thickness
D = length of edge
These dimensions are illustrated in Table 2.2. Note that
the shape factor per unit depth is given by the ratio M/N when
the curvilinear-squares method is used for calculations.
2.5.2 Graphic Method and Shape
Factors (continued)
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Example 2.4
A small cubic furnace 50 cm50 cm on the inside is
constructed of fireclay brick (k = 1.04 W/mC) with a wall
thickness of 10 cm as shown in Fig. 2.21. The inside of the
furnace is maintained at 500C and the outside at 50C.
Calculate the heat lost through the walls.
FIGURE 2.21 2.4
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Example 2.4 (continued)
(Sol)
We compute the total shape factor by adding the shape
factors for the walls, edges, and corners.
Walls:
Edges:
Corner:
m 5 . 2
1 . 0
) 5 . 0 )( 5 . 0 (
L
A
S ! ! !
m 27 . 0 ) 5 . 0 )( 54 . 0 ( D 54 . 0 S ! ! !
m 015 . 0 ) 1 . 0 )( 15 . 0 ( L 15 . 0 S ! ! !
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Example 2.4 (continued)
There are 6 wall sections, 12 edges, and 8 corners, so that the
total shape factor is
and the heat flow is calculated as
m 36 . 18 ) 015 . 0 )( 8 ( ) 27 . 0 )( 12 ( ) 25 )( 6 ( S ! !
kW 8.59 50)(K) - m)(500 36 W/mK)(18. (1.04 T kS q ! ! !
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2.6 Transient Heat Conduction
So far we have only dealt with steady-state conduction in this
chapter, but some time must elapse() after the heat
transfer process is initiated before steady-state conditions are
reached. During this transient period the temperature changes,
and the analysis must take into account changes in the internal
energy. In the remainder of this chapter we will deal with
methods for analyzing more complex unsteady heat flow
problems, because transient heat flow is of great practical
importance in industrial heating and cooling.
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2.6.1 Systems with Negligible
Internal Resistance
If the internal conductive resistance is so small compared
to the external thermal resistance of convection, the
temperature within the system is substantially uniform at any
instant.
A measure of the relative importance of the thermal
resistance within a solid body is the Biot number Bi,
s
k
L h
Rexternal
Rinternal
Bi ! !
body solid the o ty conductivi thermal : k
area sur ace
volume
: L
t coe icien er heat trans average the : h here
s
(2.73)
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2.6.1 Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance (continued)
When Bi is very small, assume the temperature is only a
function of time and is uniform throughout the system at
any instance.
Change in internal
energy of the solid
body during dt
Net heat flow from the
solid body to the
surrounding during dt
=
)
s
cVdT hA T T dt
g
!
Where c: specific heat (J/kg K)
V: density
V: volume
A
s
: surface area
(2.74)
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Note: the error introduced by assuming uniform temperature
T=T(t) only will be less than 5%, when Bi<0.1 for cases of
plate ,cylinder or sphere.
The variables T and t can be readily separated, and for a
differential time interval dt, Eq (2.74) becomes
2.6.1 Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance (continued)
(2.75)
(2.76)
)
0 0
s
T T t
s
T T 0
s
0
hA
t
BiFo c
0
d T T
hA dT
dt
T T T T c
hA T T
ln t
T T c
T T
e e
T T
g
g g
g
g

g
g

= =

= =

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MEM Department NSYSU
S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 93
2.6.1 Systems with Negligible Internal
Resistance (continued)
s s s
2
hL h V
where Bi
k k A
t
Fo (Fourier number)
L
! !
!
s
k

c
!
s
c
Note: is called the time constant
hA
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ppt. 94
Example 2.5
When a thermocouple() is moved from one medium to
another medium at a different temperature, the thermocouple
must be given sufficient time to come to thermal equilibrium
with the new conditions before a reading is taken. Consider a
0.10cm-diameter copper thermocouple wire originally at
150C. Determine the temperature response when this wire is
suddenly immersed in (a) water at 40C ( =80 W/m
2
K)
and (b) air at 40 C ( =10 W/m
2
K).
h
h
s
3
k 391W/mK
c 383J/kgK
8930kg/m
=
=
=
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 95
Example 2.5 (continued)
(sol)
The surface area A
s
and the volume of the wire per unit
length are
The Biot number in water is
3
s
2
2 2 7 2
A D ()(0.001m) 3.14 10 m
D
V ()(0.001 m )/4 7.85 10 m
4
-

! ! ! v
! ! ! v
2
s
h (80W/m K)(0.001m)
Bi 1
4k (4)(391W/mK)
= =
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 96
Example 2.5 (continued)
Since the Biot number for air is even smaller, the internal
resistance can be neglected for both cases and Eq.(2.76)
applies.
From the property values we obtain:
The temperature response is given by Eq. (2.76)
The result are plotted in Fig. 2.22.
hA 4h
Bi Fo t t
c cD
= =
Bi Fo 0.0936t for water
Bi Fo 0.0117t for air
=
=
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 97
Example 2.5 (continued)
FIGURE 2.22
2.5
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 98
2.6.2 Infinite Slab()
In the remainder of this chapter we will consider the
transient conduction problems in which the temperature
of the system interior is not uniform. An example of
such a problem is transient heat flow in an infinite slab,
as shown in Fig. 2.23.
1D
no heat source
constant properties
FIGURE 2.23
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ppt. 99
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
Since the temperature T must be a function of time t and x,
we begin by assuming a product solution
The heat conduction equation
L x 0
x
T
t
T

1
2
2
e e

(2.77)
where e=k/Vc thermal diffusivity.
The rate of temperature change in a material with small e will
be slower than in a material with large e.
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ppt. 100
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
The left-hand side is a function of t only, whereas the
right-hand side is a function of x.
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
T(x,t) X(x)(t)
T T X
X and
t t x x
1 X
X
t x
1 1 X

t X x
=

= =


=

O
= =

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ppt. 101
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
The temperature as a function of distance and time in the slab
is given by
X
dx
X d
e C
dt
d
2
2
t
1
=
= =
Let u=
x sin C x cos C X
e C
3 2
t
1
2
=
=

2
(2.78)
(2.80) x) Bsin x (Acos e
x) sin C x cos (C e C t) T(x,
t
3 2
t
1
2
2
=
=

(2.79)
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ppt. 102
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
The boundary and initial condition are:
Boundary condition 1 requires that
s x L
x L
i
T
(1) at x 0 , 0
x
T
(2) at x L, k h(T T )
x
(3) at t 0, T T
= g
=

= =

= =

= =
)
2
t
x 0
x 0
T
e Asinx Bcosx 0
x

=
=

= + =

B 0 =
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ppt. 103
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
Boundary condition 2
must hold for all values of t, which gives
x Acos e t) T(x,
t
2

!
2 2
t t
x L
x L s s
T h h
e AsinL T e AcosL
x k k

!
!

! ! !

L sin L cos
k
h
s
!
s
k L
or cotL L
Bi hL
! !
s
k
L h
Bi here !
(2.81)
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ppt. 104
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
Equation (2.81) is transcendental, and there are an infinite
number of values of , called characteristic values(),
that will satisfy it. The simplest way to determine the
numerical values of is to plot cot L and L/Bi against L.
The values of at the points of intersection of these curves are
the characteristic values and satisfy the second boundary
condition. Fig. 2.24 is a plot of these curves, and if L=1 we
can read off the first few characteristic values as

1 2
0.86Bi, 3.43Bi, etc. ! !
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ppt. 105
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
FIGURE 2.24
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 106
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
The complete solution is formed as the sum of the solutions
corresponding to each characteristic value:
Each term of this infinite series contains a constant. These
constants are evaluated by substituting the initial condition
into Eq. (2.82):
The characteristic functions cosP
n
x are orthogonal()
between x=0 and x=L and therefore
x cos A e t) T(x,
n
1 n
n
t
2
n

g
=

= (2.82)
x cos A T T T(x,0)
n
1 n
n i
g
=
g
= = (2.83)
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ppt. 107
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
where may be any characteristic value of P. To obtain a
particular value of A
n
, we multiply both sides of Eq. (2.83) by
cos P
m
x and integrate between 0 and L. In accordance with Eq.
(2.84), all terms on the right-hand side disappear except the
one involving the square of the characteristic function, cos P
n
x,
and we obtain
x xcos cos
m
L
0
n

n m if 0
n m if 0
= =
= =
(2.84)
m

) xdx cos A xdx cos T T

L
0
n
2
n
L
0
n i

=
g
L
2
n n n
0
n
L 1
cos xdx sin Lcos L
2 2
=

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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 108
2.6.2 Infinite Slab (continued)
and
hence the constant A
n
is
To express the temperature in the slab in terms of conventional
dimensionless moduli, we let . The final form of the
solution, obtained by substituting Eq. (2.85) into Eq. (2.82)
L
n n
0
n
1
cos xdx sin L

)
L Lcos sin L
L sin T T 2
A
n n n
n i
n

!
g
(2.85)
/L
n n
!
2 2
n
(t/L )
n n
n 1
i n n n
T(x,t) T sin cos( x/L)
2 e
T T sin cos
g

g
!
g

(2.86)
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 109
2.6.3 Semi-Infinite Solid
It can be used to estimate transient heat transfer effects near
the surface of the earth or to approximate the transient
response of finite solid, such as a thick slab, during the early
portion of a transient when the temperature in the slab interior
is not yet influenced by the change in surface conditions.
Closed-form solutions have been obtained for three types of
changes in surface conditions, instantaneously applied at t=0:
1. A sudden change in surface temperature, T
s
T
i
2. A sudden application of a specified heat flux , as , for
example, exposing the surface to radiation
3. A sudden exposure of the surface to a fluid at a different
temperature through a uniform and constant heat transfer
coefficient.
"
0
q
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ppt. 110
2.6.3 Semi-Infinite Solid (continued)
These three cases are illustrated in Fig. 2.25 and the solutions
are summarized below.
FIGURE 2.25
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 111
2.6.3 Semi-Infinite Solid (continued)
Case 1. Change in surface temperature:
Case 2. Constant surface heat flux:
(2.87)
"
0
"
s
q q !
" 1/2 " 2
0 0
s s
2q (t/) q x x x
T(x,t) T exp erfc
k 4t k
2 t
i
+ +
!


' '
' '
t
) T T ( k
x
T
k ) t ( q
t 2
x
er
T T
T ) t , x ( T
i s
0 x
"
s
s i
s
x

'
+

'

=
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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 112
2.6.3 Semi-Infinite Solid (continued)
Case 3. Surface heat transfer by convection and radiation:
The function erf appearing in Eq. (2.87) is the Gaussian error
function, which is encountered frequently in engineering and
is defined as
. J ) t T(0, T h
x
T
k
0 x
=

g
=
2
2
i
T(x,t) T x hx h t x h t
er c exp er c
T T k k k
2 t 2 t
i
g
+
+ +
= + +

' '
' '
' '
2
x

2 t
0
x 2
er e d

2 t

+
=

' '

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S.S. Hsieh
ppt. 113
2.6.3 Semi-Infinite Solid (continued)
Values of this function are tabulated in the appendix. The
complementary error function, erfc(w), is defined as
erfc(w)=1 erf(w)
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ppt. 114
Example 2.6
Estimate the minimum depth x
m
at which one must place a
water main( ) below the surface to avoid
freezing(). The soil is initially at a uniform temperature
of 20C. Assume that under the worst conditions anticipated
it is subjected to a surface temperature of -15C for a period
of 60 days. Use the following properties for soil (300K).
Properties for soil:
3
2
6
kg
W
2050 , k 0.52
m K
m
k
J m
c 1840 , 0.138 10
kg K s
c

! !
! ! ! v
FIGURE 2.23
2.6
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ppt. 115
Example 2.6 (continued)
(sol)
Assume: 1D, semi-infinite medium, constant properties
m s m
i s
m
T(x ,t) T x
erf
T T
2 t
x 0 ( 15 )
0.43 erf
20 ( 15 )
2 t
+
=

' '
+
= =


' '
From error function perf(0.4)=0.43
m
6 1/2
m
x
0.4
2 t
x 0.4 2 t 0.8[0.138 10 60 24 3600] 0.68m

=
= - - = - - - - =