CAD/CAM Systems

CAD is the use of computers in interactive engineering drawing and storage of designs. It is concerned with the automation of certain phases of product design. CAD improves design quality, productivity of designers, product standardization and design documentation. CAM is concerned with automating the planning and controlling of production. The computer programs can be stored in the manufacturing database, retrieved, revised and updated as components are added or redesigned. CAM improves product quality, closer tolerances possible and labor costs are reduced.

Computer Aided Design

Computers are increasingly used for product design. The designers can modify an existing design or create a new design on a computer monitor screen by means of a keyboard or a joystick. The design can be maneuvered on the screen, it can be rotated to provide different views and it can be split apart to have inside view of the product. The design can be stored electronically for future use. CAD increases the productivity of designers almost ten times. CAD systems facilitate cost analysis , volume/weight analysis etc.

Computer Aided Design Advantages

1. Designers save time and money 2. Eliminates prototype model building 3. Allows designers to determine costs and test such variables as stress , tolerance , product variability, interchangeability and serviceability. 4. Eliminates manual drafting completely 5. Faster and better product development 6. Accurate flow of information to other departments 7. Product cost can be determined at the design stage

Computer Aided Manufacture

CAM refers to the use of computer software to direct and control manufacturing equipment. When CAD information is translated into instructions for computer aided manufacturing , the results of these two technologies is referred to as CAD/CAM system.

Computer Aided Manufacture Advantages

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Better product quality Faster response to the market Reduction in production cost Minimum involvement of direct workers Higher productivity levels

Automation
Operating or controlling a production process by electronic devices and reducing human intervention to the minimum. Physical contribution by humans taken over by machines. Mental by electronic devices & computers Automation is extension of the principles of mechanization to the integration of machines, one with another in such a manner as to have the group operate as an individual processing & control unit. Automation is the application of electronic digital computer control systems, which not only read the individual measurement devices but analyze the data as received from the devices, reach a decision, and adjust the settings for projected optimum results.

Automation
Machine attachments Additional attachments to machines that saves on human effort and time and also more accurate. ExampleMulti-drilling heads. NC & CNC machines NC machines are pre-programmed through microcomputers to perform repetitive operations. In CNC machines, information storage is transferred to the memory of the computer. In CNC machines, it is possible to build into the system Real-time & Off-line diagnostic possibilities. In CNC machines, it is possible to display on screen the operator instructions and machining data.

Automation
Robots Robotics is also known as artificial intelligence. Robots are human like machines that performs sequence of moves in repetitive manner. Robots replace humans for very heavy, dirty, dangerous, unpleasant or monotonous tasks. Robots are more accurate, more predictable and perform the same operations repeatedly without fatigue.

Automation
Automated Quality Control Inspection Automated machines ensure 100 percent inspection which results in improved product quality. These machines are integrated into the production system. They can be used to take physical dimensions of parts, compare the measurements to standards, and determine whether the parts meet quality specifications.

Automation
Automatic Identification System (AIS) These comprise Bar codes, RFID, Magnetic stripes, Optical sensors etc. which help in sensing & feeding data to computers. Data are read from products, documents, parts & containers without the need for workers to read or interpret the data. AIS is commonly used in Retailing, Wholesaling, Warehousing, Factory Shop Floors etc.

Advantages of Automation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Higher productivity Uniform quality levels Reduce costs Less accidents Easier production control Dangerous , repetitive , hazardous and unpleasant tasks can be performed by robots

Disadvantages of Automation
1. 2. 3. 4. Heavy capital investment Displacement of labor Loss of suggestions from employees Cost of shutdown of automated plants due to any reason is quite high 5. Design specifications for raw materials cannot be relaxed 6. Losing the human touch

Types of Production Systems

1. Project: Deals with one-of-a-kind products that are tailored to the unique requirements of each customer. A construction company, with its many kinds and sizes of projects, is an example. Since the products cannot be standard, the conversion process must be flexible in its equipment capabilities, human skills and procedures. The conversion process features problem-solving, teamwork and coordinated design and production of unique products.

Types of Production Systems

2. Job-Shop: Appropriate for manufacture of small batches of different products, each of which is custom designed and, hence, requires its own unique set of processing steps, or routing through the production process. Printing press illustrates job-shop technology. Each product uses only a small portion of the shops human resources and general purpose equipment. With a large number of different jobs, elaborate jobtracking and control systems are used. Much time is spent waiting for access to equipment, some equipment is overloaded while the other equipment is idle, depending upon the mix of jobs at hand.

Types of Production Systems

3. Batch Technology: Step ahead from job-shop process in terms of product standardization, but it is not as standardized as the assembly line process. Within the wide range of products in a batch, several are produced repeatedly and that too in large volumes. These few dominant products differentiate batch facilities from job shops, however, no product is sufficiently dominant to warrant dedicated equipment and process. Consequently, like job shops, batch facilities produce a wide variety of products in a wide variety of volumes. The system must be flexible for the low-volume/high-variety products, but the higher volume products can be processed differently-for example, by producing some batches for stocking rather than or customer order.

Types of Production Systems

4.Line production or Assembly line: Facilities that produce a narrow range of standardized products. Laundry appliances are a representative example. Since the product designs are relatively stable, specialized equipment, human skills and management systems can be developed and dedicated to the limited range of products and volumes. Beyond this range, the system is rigid.

Types of Production Systems

5. Continuous Flow: Examples are chemical plants and oil refineries. Materials and products are produced in continuous, endless flows, rather than in batches of discrete units. The product is highly standardized, as are all of the manufacturing procedures, the sequence of product build-up, materials and equipment. Continuous flow technology affords high-volume, roundtheclock operation with capital-intensive and specialized automation.

Standard Operating Procedures

The working procedures need to be documented as a step by step process defining the work to be done. The work instructions should be in local language for the lower level workmen. As for as possible, one must try to use pictures, symbols, tables, colors etc. The SOPs must be simple, user friendly, helpful & not be seen as cumbersome or unnecessary burden. The SOPs should include safety instructions. Also they need to be reviewed & updated periodically.

Productivity Measurement
Productivity of each resource i.e. men, materials, machines, space, capital, energy etc can be measured separately. Such measurement gives partial productivity. Productivity of all inputs together gives the productivity on total factor basis. Productivity = output in a given period labor + capital + matls+ energy

Productivity Measurement
Labor productivity = Output Man hours used

Labor productivity = Value added for the product Total wages

Productivity Measurement
Productivity is defined as the level of the output of goods and services achieved by the resources of an organization. In simple terms it can be defined as the ratio of output to input. Increasing the output with the same inputs, maintaining the same output with lesser inputs and/or increasing the output in a higher proportion to that of the increase in inputs can increase productivity. If an organization does not maintain a high level of productivity, it tends to be less efficient and less attractive to investors. Productivity has an impact not only on profits but also on the very survival of the organization.

Productivity Measurement
How to measure productivity? The productivity is expressed in the form of a fraction, output in the numerator and the input or the resource under consideration in the denominator. Hence the productivity can be expressed in totality by converting the output in rupee or dollar terms and all the resources also in rupee or dollar terms. Since this is a little complicated and also may not serve much purpose in the organization, the productivity is usually measured for different kinds of resources.

Productivity Measurement
Manpower productivity = Output of goods or services per unit time Number of persons employed Or = Output of goods or services per unit time Man - hours used.

Productivity Measurement
Material productivity = Output of goods or services per unit time Cost of material used Capital productivity = Output of goods or services per unit time Capital assets employed = Output of goods or services per unit time Energy bill per unit time

Energy productivity

Productivity Measurement
Why do you have to measure productivity? The measures of productivity can be used to compare people one with another, to compare one organization with another or to track an organization over a period of time. Productivity measures help monitor the performance of an organization over time, initiate corrective actions in time and work towards further improvements in productivity which will ultimately lead to improvement in the profitability of the organization.

Productivity Measurement
Factors affecting productivity improvement Changes in the work force - The proportion of workers with higher education, the proportion of workers with experience, the age and gender of the workers have positive or negative effects on productivity. Change in industrial composition - Some times there are sudden trends of large number of workers moving from one industry to another that is more productive. Such changes affect the productivity growth rate. For example, from the last decade of 20th century in India, there has been a shift from Manufacturing Industries to Information Technology and other service industries.

Productivity Measurement
Change in capital-labor ratio - The productivity is also affected by the ratio of investments in capital and labour by an organization. If an organization suddenly shifts from capital intensive to labour intensive or vice versa, the productivity is bound to get affected in both the cases. Decrease in research-and-development spending Innovation is the order of the day and continual improvements both incremental as well as breakthroughs are very essential for the growth of an organization. In case of breakthroughs, there could be a small drop in the productivity initially but will soon go up beyond what it was before the breakthrough stage. The breakthroughs play a major role in improving productivity and hence a decline in the number of breakthroughs or decrease in the budgets for R & D will have an adverse effect on productivity growth.

Productivity Measurement
Governmental regulation Certain increases in Governmental regulations are also cited by organizations as a cause of productivity problems. Some organizations in U.S have openly come forward against one of the recent acts Sarbanes Oxley Act.

Productivity Measurement
How do we go about Improving productivity ? Stimulate research and development - Organizations have to evolve policies and strategies for increasing research and development activities. Many organizations in India, specially in the automotive sector have setup integrated R & D centers and have allocated separate budgets for the same. Change incentives for working - The organizations should come forward with productivity linked incentive plans. Many organizations have three year agreements with their workmen and they have now adopted productivity and incentives as one of the agenda in their meetings before concluding the agreements. Employees should be paid for their output and not for the time spent by them on the job.

Productivity Measurement
Increase labor-management cooperation - Again as part of their agreements, the management and labour can explore all possible avenues and areas for co-operation and chalk out the plans for improvement in productivity. Increase employee participation - Another method of improving productivity is to increase employee participation in problem solving and making decisions. Many organizations have now adopted the Japanese techniques like Kaizen, Quality Circles etc, and have reaped enormous benefits in the form of increased productivity.

Productivity Measurement
Tighten existing controls - Another way to improve productivity is to tighten existing controls to eliminate all kinds of wastages and inefficiencies thereby increasing the individual as well as group outputs. Change government policies - The government policies can aim at reducing inflation which would facilitate long-term investments and increased budget allocations for research and development. The simplified regulations would free organizations from the extra burden of paper work which is one of the causes for limiting productivity.