Its importance: wood has so many uses to man, not only shelter but also for food, heat,

clothing, etc. Builders are mostly concerned with the uses of tiber for building purposes. Our local lumber is decidedly superior in many respects to those other places, and there is an abundant supply. This supply may last forever if we know how to take care of our forest. We have all kinds of varieties for innumerable purposes.

We have hardwood for structural purposes such as Ipil, Yakal, Guijo and many others. For furniture we have Narra, Dao. For interior finish almost any local wood can be used. In the beauty of grains and color it is also superior to any in the world. What seems to be the defect in our lumber industry is the bad treatment the lumber receives. First there is indiscriminate cutting of logs. Immature trees are chopped down just to have quantity.

Then some irresponsible and none too honest lumber people pass inferior kinds for the right ones. In sawing the logs into lumber saw mills seldom cut it to actual commercial specified size, as for example one inch (1 ) flooring is not actually one inch but 7/8 inches processing the furnished lumber, the lumber people do not supply real good planed and smooth products. In other words there appears plenty of rooms for improvement both in logging and processing. Ever with the structural lumber if we do not carefully check the deliveries about 5% to 10% is not usable for purpose it is ordered.

This is due either to defects in sizes, knots, shapes and other imperfections, there seems to be no desire to improve the quality of the product. All of these add up to the cost of the building. And if the builder does not care or worst yet does not know how to improve these badly prepared lumber in the course of his construction then we can only expect poor quality building, not only in strength and durability but also in beauty. The improvement in this line of the building industry cannot be emphasized.

1. Structure and Appearance - Lumber is generally known by its appearance. However, some lumber are similar to other kinds that other means are restored to in order to determine accurately the identity of the species. Color, weight, smell and resonance are hopeful, but the structure of the wood is the most reliable means of identifying the wood.

2. Structure of Wood in general - trees which increase in size by growth of new wood each year on the outer surface under the bark called exogenous trees, are the only trees used for lumber. The structure consist of longitudinal boundless of fibres or cells, crossed in radial direction from pitch to bark by other fibres called Maddullary or Pitch Rays, binding the whole structure together. The fibres ducts and cells vary in different kinds of trees in shape and disposition and determine to a large extent the appearance, durability, and strength of the lumber. Wood is composedly chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. When dry, about half its weight is carbon and half oxygen and hydrogen.

The growth of wood is by layers deposited all over the trunk and branches between the bark and the old wood. If one examines carefully the cross-section of the log he/she can see concentric bands called Annual Rings. As the tree gets older the inner layers become checked with the concretionary substances and will become useless as sap carriers. They will serve only as the support of the tree.

Therefore, there are two kinds of wood in a tree, the dense and the strong Heart Wood (usually darker in color than the sap wood) and the cutter, more porous Sap Wood although the contrast is not always very marked. The proportion of the sap wood varies considerably in various parts of the same tree. In order trees to sap wood is weaker, freer from knots, and more susceptible to decay that the heat wood. While in comparatively young timber the difference in strength between heart wood and sapwood is not very much.

The comparative width of annual tree rings, the direction and the arrangement of the cells and fibres are the causes of the grain of the wood. Thus, trees of rapid growth having wide annual rings produce coarse grained wood, while those of slower growth produce wood of narrow rings of fine grain. If the grains of the wood straight grained.

Sometimes the grains are twisted around the axis of the tree thus producing spiral grain. Some trees have several rings of fibres run obliquely to the axis of the tree in one direction, while the next layer are oblique in the opposite direction: such wood are called cross grained. Guijo, Yakal and some species of lauan fall under this. Wavy grain is caused by large undulations in wood elements, generally on the radial surfaces, and curly grain by small undulations. In selecting wood for structural purposes care should be exercised so as to avoid failures due to disadvantageous runs of the wood grains.

Besides irregularities in the character of the grain there are, structurally speaking, trees important classes of defects in timber namely:

Wood is essentially an organic substance made up of a skeleton of cellulose impregnated with lignin. Cellulose is whitish, like starch in composition, highly resistant to alcoholic fermentation. Lignin is a carbohydrate compound, but more soluble in acid than cellulose. Chemically - dry wood contains 49% carbon, 44% oxygen, 6% Hydrogen and 1% ash.

The deterioration of wood is caused by the following: (a) natural decay, (b) attack of insects, (c) attack of marine borers, (d) attack by woodpeckers, (e) mechanical abrasion or wear, (f) fire.

A. Natural Decay - is caused b the action of certain forms of plant life called fungi, consisting of very fine, thread - like filaments which penetrate the wood in all directions, feeding upon the cells and breaking down their structure.

There are four (4) requirements for the growth of fungi, namely, air, moisture, food, and favourable temperature. Of course if any of these is excluded, as for example air by emerging wood continuously under water, no fungi can exist thus the wood will be preserved for a very long time. Also if the wood cells which serves as food of the fungi being impregnated with poisons, the fungi can not live. Such poisoning is accomplished by the use of commercial preservatives such as coal tar, creosote and zinc chloride. Painting dry wood will keep out dampness and prevent the development of fungi. The high temperature of drying kilns, will also kill the fungi as well as expel the moisture, so that well seasoned lumber is less likely to decay if properly protected, than green lumber.

B. Attack by Insects - timber with bark is easily attack by insects, such as the following: 1. Powder post insect (bok-bok) 2. Pole borer - reddish brown beetle 2/5 20 4/5 inches long. 3. Termites, namely (a) subterranean and (b) dry wood variety.

(a) The subterranean variety inhabits dark, damp tunnels below surface of ground and extends runaways to the wood for food. (b) Dry wood variety - do not require humid earth for habitat. The first warning of the presence of termites is the appearance of a swarm of flying alates (young termites with wings). Ravages of termites can be prevented by (a) building light concrete foundations, (b) keeping untreated timber out of contact with the ground, (c) providing metal shields for sills, foundations timber and other preventive measures, (d) wood that is partly attacked can be save by treating it with finely powdered Paris green or sodium flousilicate.

C. Marine Borers: (a) mollusc and (b) crustacean types. Protection from these borers: (1) Creosoting, (2) encasing in concrete jackets, (3) chlorine gas. D. Other deteriorating influences: (a) Mechanical abrasion or wear as say, wood ties, mine props, wharf timbers, stairs; maybe prevented by putting iron plates. (b) Fire by burning: maybe burning by the prevention of the start of the fire: by saturating with soak solutions (5-10%) of Ammonium Sulphate or Ammonium Phosphate. (c) Wood peckers.

The moisture content of green lumber is reduced by exposure to air or by heating in kilns. The former process is called seasoning and reduces the moisture content from 30% to 35% down to 12% to 20%.

(1) to decrease shrinkage after placement in the structure; (2) to increase its resistance to decay; (3) to reduce its weight (4) to improve its strength and mechanical properties; and (5) to prepare it for preservatives treatment. To air dry lumber it is stocked in a yard under cover (not exposed to elements, sun and rain) and separation of about 1 strips are placed between to have a free circulation of air.

For ordinary purposes 3-4 months seasoning is enough. However, for interior finishes or flooring kiln drying is recommended. In kiln drying the lumber is placed in air tight chambers and subjected to a constant current of hot air of about 150 to 180 F for about 10-12 days, or until the moisture content is reduced from 3-8%. Kiln dried lumber will absorb moisture quickly so that it should be well protected in delivery and while it is not yet nailed in place. It is best order kiln dry finishing lumber after the roof is in place. For exteriors or exposed surfaces it is recommended to cover same or paint it right away.

It has been found that well seasoned lumber is stronger and stiffer and more durable than green lumber. However, if lumber is over dried in kilns, that is, if too much moisture is eliminated, it becomes brittle and weak. To construct such a member the first lamination is bent over from and firmly secured. Adhesive is spread over the first piece, and next lamination, with the adhesive spread over both faces, is placed in position and securely clamped with devices that produce uniform pressures of 100 to 200 psi. The remaining pieces are added similar, when the pieces are not long enough to extend the full length of the joint is about twelve times the thickness of the piece.

The construction of laminated members must be performed in a shop which the pressure and temperature can be controlled and where equipment, experience and skill are available.

The methods employed in laminating have resulted in interesting curved forms, rigid frames, etc. Bowstring trusses with 250-ft. spans have been built with glued laminated chords. The minimum radii for bends are generally given as 125 to (preferably) 150 times the thickness of the lamination. Waterproof glues of the resorcinol and phenol types are used for exposed exterior work; in interior work the nonwaterproof casein glues with mold inhibitors are employed.

Uses of glued, laminated wood: 1. Stringers of circular stairs 2. Roof beams, trusses and rafters for wide span and creator overhangs. 3. Built-up or composite girders. 4. Floor finishing, furniture making and doors. 5. Aircraft manufacture.

Glues used for woodworking are: 1. Casein glue 2. Blood-albumin glue 3. Animal glue (untreated)

A. for waterproofing season wood to render if resistant to the attack of fungi which can not thrive with out moisture: (a) rude oil, (b) Paints (linseed oil turpentine and some inorganic matter (c) stains having a cresote base. B. To poison food supply of fungi and insects: (a) creoste oil, (b) inorganic salts (zinc chloride, mercuric chloride and copper sulphate).

The structure of wood plays a very important part in determining the case with which preservation may be injected in to wood. The timber must be porous and as possible should have radial cannals for better penetraions.

The best time to cut timber is during the wet season, to avoid fungus growth or insect attacks and to avoid checking due to rapid drying. The bark should be removed at once to prevent insects and fungus growth. Penetration of preservatives into woods lacking open radial ducts is improved by incising timbers by toothed rollers to a depth of 1/2"-3/4:. All timber to be treated should be thoroughly seasoned to facilitate absorption.

This can be accomplished by: (a) airseasoning, (b) exposure to saturated steam (timber is placed in a large treating cylinder and subjected to live steam at a pressure of 20-40 lbs. per sq. in. for 2-10 hours, after which the timber is ready for treatment) sometimes timber is soaked in creosote oil which is gradually heated to a temperature above boiling point of water, to cause the water or moisture to vaporize.

When the amount of timber to be treated is small, when hauling or lifting is not practical, or when the treatment is to be done by minimum cost: (a) Brush Treatment- creosote, paint, oil and whitewash. Creosote is to be heated to 200oF before application-mine timbers,poles, and posts. (b) Dipping- the timber is dipped into the preservatives and allowed to soak for a few minutes.- Fence posts and poles. (c) Charring- a very old and inexpensive method is charring the outer fibers by fire, thus converting the surface of the timber into charcoal which, devoid of food elements, is not attacked by fungistructural members where beauty or appearances is no consideration.

The preservative is drawn into the wood by absorption or its forced by atmospherice pressure. (a) Open -tank process:- The timber is placed in a tank and covered with preservatives; it is then heated just above boiling point of water, to expel air and moisture; after about one hour or two the timber is allowed to cool with the preservative and is injected by atmospheric pressure, this method maybe used for creosote, zinc chloride or crude oil. (b) Kyanizing:- well seasoned lumber is immersed in a 1% solution of bichloride of mercury for several days. (the number of days equals thickness of timber in inches plus 1 (+1), with depth of penetration of 1/4"). The salt is very poisonous hence great care should be taken in using this process. Treated lumber should not be used where it is likely be licked by animals.

(a) Bethell or Full-cell Process:- The timber is placed in horizontal steel cylinders (130 ft. long, 7 ft. dia.) Coal tar, creosote oil, is heated to proper temperature, it is then admitted into the cylinder, and is forced into the timber by the application of air pressure of 100 to 180 lbs. per square inch. This procedure is very costly. (b) Burnettizing:- This is the same process as the Bethell but the preservative used is different. Aqueous solution of 2 to 5% of zinc chloride is used with an impregnation of 1/2 lbs. per cubic ft. This process is not suitable for treating timber which are to be placed in damp places, due to the solubility of zinc chloride.

(c) Boiling Process:- Same as Bethell process, out timber, either green seasoned, is first given a conditioning treatment in creosote oil. Boiling may injure the strength of the wood. (d) Rueping Process:- This is sometimes called empty-cell process with creosote. Air-dried or steamed lumber is placed in a cylinder and the wood cells are filled with compressed air under pressure of about 75 lbs. per square inch. Oil is then admitted at a slightly higher pressure until the wood has been immersed, and then the pressure is raised to 150 lbs. per square inch. After proper amount of oil is absorbed, the creosote is forced out of the cylinder and the pressure released. As the pressure is withdrawn the compressed air within the wood expels the excess oil into the cylinder. This process is about 2/3 as much as the full-cell method.

(e) Lowry Process:- Air-dry timber is placed into the cylinder and submerged in creosote oil at 200oF. Pressure is then applied until the timber has been filled with oil. After withdrawal of oil a vacuum is drawn until the surplus oil in the wood cells has been removed. (f) Card Process:- The main feature of this process is to lessen the cost by using mixture of 15 to 20% creosote with a 3 to 5% solution of zinc chloride. Air-seasoned lumber is given a vacuum treatment for about an hour. Next is immersed in the preservative at a temperature of about 180oF. A pressure of about 125 lbs. per square inch is then applied for several hours. The oil and zinc chloride is continously stirred. When it is finished the preservative is drained off to remove surplus oils. This cost about 1/2 as much as the Bethell process.

Market Sizes of LUmber:1. Structural lumber, and 2. Finishing lumber (sidings, flooring, etc.) For structural such as posts, girders, girts, joints, beams, truss members, studs, jambs, heads, sills, etc. Cross Sections:

4"x4" 2"x2" 3"x3" 4"x10" 6"x6" 2"x4" 3"x4" 4"x12 8"x8" 2"x6" 3"x5" 4"x14 10"x10" 2"x8" 3"x6" 12:x12 2"x10" 3"x8 2"x12" 3"x10 2"x14" 3"x12 3"x14"

8"-0" to 18"-0 For finishing lumber we have different kinds of sidings such as (a) Rizal sidings (b) T. & G. tongue & grove (c) V-cut (e) Corrugated. Any of these may be obtained at 3/4" or 1" thick by 4", 6" or 8" wide and a length of 10"-0" to 14'-0". Special sizes may be obtained but usually an extra charge of 5-10% is asked. 1. Knots are classified as sound,loose, encased, and rotten. They are the beginnings of branches which have been surrounded by the parent stem. 2. Checks are radial cracks produced by unequal stresses set up in the lumber during seasoning process. 3. Shakes or sometimes called ring shakes are separations between adjacent annual rings. They are thought to be due to the bending of the tree by the wind. However, unless we use the whole log as structural member we need not to worry about these defects because they are almost automatically eliminated when the log is sawn into boards. Besides our local timber seldom show these defects