CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

What is a cell?
A cell is a small membrane-bound structure membranethat contains all the requirements for life. It is the smallest living structure. The basic unit of life composed of organelles and inclusion bodies

HISTORY OF CELL BIOLOGY

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek 17th century Dutch draper, lens grinder, microscope architect, and microscopist invented the microscope (1600s) maintained voluminous notes and detailed drawings of his viewings

1665 Robert Hooke discovered the cell Robert Brown nucleus and cyclosis 1838 Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are made up of cells. 1839 Theodor Schwann proposed that all animals are made up of cells. 1858 Rudolf Virchow proposed his theory of biogenesis: All cells come from pre-existing cells pre(life from life). This discredits the theory of spontaneous generation. Jan Evangelista Purkinje the first one to use the term protoplasm to describe the living part of the cell

The Cell Theory

1. All living things are composed of cells. - can be a single cell or many cells 2. The cell is the smallest living thing that shows all of the characteristics of life.


homeostasis, metabolism, responsiveness, reproduction, evolution

3. All cells come from preexisting living cells

Why are cells so small?

In order to be efficient in producing materials and energy for survival, cells must maintain a small surface to volume ratio.
1. The surface membrane must be large

enough to control what enters and leaves the cell 2. The volume of the cell must be small enough so that reactants can find each other

METHODS OF STUDYING CELLS

MICROSCOPY CELL CULTURE ULTRACONFIGURATION/ CENTRIFUGATION

MICROSCOPY
light microscope
  

light as source of illumination glass lenses limited resolution (loses resolving power at magnifications above 2000X) beam of electrons directed by magnets onto a viewing screen or photographic plate greater magnification than light microscope greater resolving power than light microscope

electron microscope


 

Types of cells based on complexity:

prokaryotic - lacks nuclear membrane; possesses no well-defined nucleus; wellpossesses few organelles; Examples: bacteria and other monerans eukaryotic - possesses nuclear membrane; possesses well-defined wellnucleus; many organelles present; Examples: protists; cells of fungi, plants, and animals

The Human Cell

The human cell is bounded by a plasma membrane that encloses a central nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm.


Cytoplasm contains organelles, membranous structures, and a cytoskeleton

Human cells differ in size, shape and function

CELL SIZE
most cells are microscopic 5-100 microns length of nerve cell 1 meter (m) largest single cell ostrich egg

Cell Organization
I. The Plasma Membrane
1.

Composed of a phospholipid bi-layer with biembedded proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol

a. Glycoproteins and glycolipids serve as identification markers b. Embedded proteins may serve as hormone receptors, transport channels, or enzymes in metabolic reactions c. Cholesterol is a membrane stabilizer

A. Phospholipid bilayer 1. HYDROPHILIC END 2. HYDROPHOBIC END B. Protein layer 1. extrinsic protein 2. intrinsic protein

 

2. Plasma Membrane Functions Keeps the cell intact and being selectively permeable, it regulates what enters or leaves the cell
a. Diffusion is the random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration


some molecules can diffuse across the plasma membrane

b. Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration

c. Transport across the plasma membrane by a carrier



Some carrier molecules require no energy (facilitated transport) Other transport carriers require energy (active transport)

d. Endocytosis and Exocytosis



Endocytosis occurs when the plasma membrane forms a vesicle around a particle outside the cell and brings the particle into the cell Exocytosis occurs when a vesicle inside the cell fuses with the plasma membrane and dumps its contents outside the cell

Junctional complexes of the Cell membrane

Zonula adherens 2. Macula adherens 3. Spot desmosomes

II. The Cytoplasm

The cellular material outside the nucleus The site of most cellular activities The factory area of the cell Components: a. cytosol semi-transparent fluid that semisuspends other elements of the cell b. organelles c. inclusions

Differences of organelles and inclusions

ORGANELLES Permanent living components of the cell Machinery of the cell engineered to carry out their own function examples: Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER, lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes INCLUSIONS temporary, non-living accumulation of metabolites Stored nutrients and cellular products examples: Fat droplets,granules,pigments, crystals and secretory products

Types of Organelles
1. Membranous Organelles - membrane-bounded structures of the membranecell - Nucleus, G.A., mitochondria, ER, lysosomes, peroxisome, proteasomes 2. Non-membranous Organelles Non- not bounded by membrane ex. cytoskeleton, centrioles

a. The Nucleus
The nucleus is the control center for the cel  DNA in the nucleus directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm  Nuclear structures: b.1 Nucleoli - the nucleus contains one or more where ribosomal RNA is synthesized b.2 The nuclear envelope- a double membrane that envelopesurrounds the DNA and has pores that connect it with the cytoplasm b.3 Chromatins


b.4 perinuclear cisternae

B. Ribosomes (Microbodies)


 

A mix of ribosomal RNA and protein that forms a structure of two subunits They are the site of protein synthesis Has small ribosomal units and large ribosomal units

Types of ribosomes
Attached ribosomes - located in the ER - for CHON synthesis 2. Free ribosomes - located in the cytoplasm - for cellular uses

C. The Internal Membrane System



1.The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of

membranes that form channels through the cytoplasm
a. Rough ER specializes in protein synthesis b. Smooth ER produces different substances in different cells,steroid, CHO synthesis

2. The Golgi Apparatus

a. A series of flattened sacks that accept materials from the ER b. packages, stores, and modifies the materials and places them in vesicles for delivery c. always near the nucleus, the principal traffic director for cellular CHONS D. forms vescicles, vacoules,etc.

D. Lysosomes
Vesicles formed by the Golgi Apparatus that contain hydrolytic enzymes Digest food particles brought into the cell by endocytosis, and digest worn out and unwanted materials within the cell With hydrolytic enzymes

Lysosomal activity
AUTOPHAGY digestion of damaged organelles by the lysosomes of the cells

2. AUTOLYSIS digestion of the its own damaged cells. - related to aging

E. Mitochondria
 

Small double membrane bound organelles Convert the energy stored in glucose into ATP molecules by a process known as aerobic respiration CRISTAE area where there is greater ATP production

F. PEROXISOMES
Membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase For detoxification of toxins such as alcoho,formaldehyde Disarm dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals w/ unpaied e- which ecan scramble CHON & nucleic acid structures Ex. H2O2- H2O + O

G. PROTEASOME
Organelles responsible for recycling of cellular materials With enzyme called proteases Bounded by membranes deal primarily with endogenous proteins; that is, proteins that were synthesized within the cell such as: transcription factors cyclins (which must be destroyed to prepare for the next step in the cell cycle) cycle) proteins encoded by viruses and other intracellular parasites proteins that are folded incorrectly because
 

of translation errors they are encoded by faulty genes

G. The cytoskeleton
  

1. A network of filamentous protein structures 2. Provides an internal framework for the cell 3. Centrioles are structures that occur in pairs in the cell that organize the microtubules within the cell
Also, give rise to basal bodies that direct the formation of cilia and flagella TYPES: 1. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS 2. MICROFILAMENTS 3. MICROTUBULES

TYPES OF CYTOSKELETONS
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS * strong,stable,rope-like strong,stable,rope* form desmosomes and provide internal guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell 1. MICROFILAMENTS * involved in motility and producing changes in the cell shape. 1. MICROTUBULES * tube-like structures which determine the overall shape of tubethe cell and the distribution of the organelles * important in cell division

G. Cilia and flagella

 

Hairlike projections of the cells Responsible for locomotion in some cells; also, movement of invading organisms out of the body Flagella are relatively large in size and occur in small numbers Cilia are short and occur in large numbers

Cell Metabolism
Chemical reactions in cells are organized into metabolic pathways Every reaction in the pathway has its own enzyme

A. Enzymes
1.

Large protein molecules that act as a catalyst in chemical reactions

a. enzymes have an active site where they hold reacting molecules in the correct position for a bond to form or to break a bond

 

2. Enzymes are specific to one reaction 3. Enzymes are affected by temperature and pH Inactivating an enzyme is called denaturing

B. Coenzymes NonNon-protein molecules that aid in the function of enzymes

C. Cellular Respiration


A three step series of reactions that breaks down glucose to produce CO2, water, and ATP Step 1: Glycolysis
Takes place in the cytoplasm Glucose is split into two molecules of pyruvate

Step 2: Krebs Cycle

Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria Requires oxygen

Step 3: Electron transport chain

Occurs across the membranes (christae) of the mitochondrion Produces ATP

D. Fermentation
  

Breakdown of pyruvate in the absence of oxygen Produces very few ATP Produces lactic acid Fermentation occurs in muscles when they are overused to the extent that the blood cannot supply oxygen fast enough Lactic acid can be toxic to cells but is usually converted back to pyruvate when excess oxygen is available
Lactic acid causes muscle fatigue and sore muscles

THE END

HAVE A NICE DAY!