UNIT VI

Multiple Access Techniques

Why is AM radio better than FM at night?

 Term has its Origin in Satellite Communications System of Earth Stations and a Satellite Used to Mean Sharing a Communications Channel (of M Hz) among a Group of Users Signal Space of Time Bandwidth TW
Where T = k/R Signal Space D = 2TW

 The EM spectrum is a limited resource How can we share it?

Time Space Frequency Polarization Spread Spectrum - use a wider bandwidth?

Multiple Access
Multiple hosts sharing the same medium What are the new problems?

 allow many users to simultaneously share a communications resource separate the signals at the receiver to extract your information Two methods
Do not mix the signals in the first place
can use space or time (SDMA or TDMA)

Use distinctive properties of each signal as a means to identify

Frequency spectrum (FDMA) Polarization of waves (PDMA) code sequence attached to each message (CDMA)

MULTIPLE ACCESS ME THODS

There are predominantly three types of multiple access methods. 1.FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access) 2.TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access) 3.CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access)

FDMA Illustration
assigns individual channels or bands to individual users, which can only be used by that user for the period of the call

FDMA(Frequency Division Multiple Access) With FDMA, frequencies are separated in the frequency domain, each user is allotted a different set of frequencies to operate upon. Subscribers are assigned a pair of voice channels (forward and reverse) for the duration of the call.

FDMA Pros and Cons

Advantages Simple to implement Continuous transmission
minimal overhead bits

Disadvantages Nonlinear Effects

sharing of channel causes spreading at saturation

Inefficient
once assigned, cannot be reassigned even if not in use

TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access) In this system, each user is allocated a different time slot. Forward link frequency and reverse link frequency is the same. A synchronous switch is responsible for the time switching.

TDMA Illustration
Divides the radio spectrum into time slots, and in each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive

TDMA Details
The incoming data from each source are briefly buffered and scanned to to form a composite digital data stream mc ( t ) .

TDMA Pros and Cons

Advantages flexible bit rate
channels may have varying data rates

efficient use of channels Disadvantages Synchronization

must lock on to your time slot (signal processing)

Overhead
processing required for buffering...

CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access)

There is no restriction on time and frequency in this scheme. All the users can transmit at all times and at all frequencies. Because users are isolated by code, they can share the same carrier frequency, eliminating the frequency reuse problem encountered in other technologies. With CDMA, unlike other cellular telephone standards, subscriber data change in real time depending on voice activity and requirements of the network and other users of the network

 A comparative study between the above three access technologies with respect to time and frequency is as shown below

Spread spectrum
Spread spectrum techniques are methods by which electromagnetic energy generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth Spread spectrum methods:
Frequency hopping spread spectrum Direct sequence spread spectrum Time hopping spread spectrum

Spread Spectrum Communications

Spread Spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data sequence occupies a bandwidth in excess of the minimum bandwidth necessary to send it. Signal spreading is done before transmission by using a spreading sequence. The same sequence is used at the receiver to retrieve the signal Spread Spectrum is most effective against interference (intentional or non-intentional) with fixed energy. Main commercial applications in wireless and GPS.

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Spreading Codes
A noise-like and random signal has to be generated at the transmitter. The same signal must be generated at the receiver in synchronization. We limit the complexity by specifying only one bit per sample, i.e., a binary sequence.

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Spread Spectrum Principles

Does not attempt to allocate disjoint frequency or time slot resources
Instead, this approach allocates all resources to simultaneous users, controlling the power transmitted by each user to the minimum required to maintain a given SNR

Each user employs a noise-like wideband signal occupying the entire frequency allocation Each user contributes to the background noise affecting all users, but to the least extent possible.

Spread Spectrum Priniciples

This restriction on interference limits capacity, but because time and bandwidth resource allocations are unrestricted, the resulting capacity is significantly higher than the conventional system

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Spread Spectrum- Main Operation

b(t) x m(t)

c(t)

t ! bt v ct M  f ! B f * C  f
B(f) M(f)

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 At the transmitter side:

Input is fed into a channel encoder
Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth

Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits

Spreading code or spreading sequence Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number generator

Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of signal to be transmitted

At the receiving end:

digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread

spectrum signal Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover data

 What can be gained from apparent waste of spectrum?

Immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath distortion Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals Multiple access capability
Several users can independently use the same wider bandwidth with very little interference

Spreading Sequences
Spreading sequences are very important in the design of spread spectrum communication Two categories of Spreading Sequences
PN sequences Orthogonal codes

FHSS systems
PN sequences most common

DSSS CDMA systems

PN sequences Orthogonal codes

Spread Spectrum

Normal Signal

Signal with Spread Spectrum

Processing Gain (spreading factor)

Period of one data bit

PG = SF = Tb / Tc

Period of one chip

PN Sequences
PN sequences are periodic but appear random within one period PN sequences are very easy to generate
Generated using LFSR

PN sequences are easy to re-generate and synchronize at the receiver PN sequences have good random properties PN sequences converge to a Gaussian process when the period tends to infinity

Pseudo-Noise Sequence
Function: Random binary sequence
Balanced: they have an equal number of 1's and 0's Single Peak auto-correlation function

Generating the Spreading (Pseudo-Noise) Sequence

The pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence with a noise like waveform that is generated by means of a feedback shift register. The feedback shift register consists of m-stage shift registers and a logic circuit that perform modulo-2 (X-OR) arithmetic. A sequence with period 2m-1 is called Maximal-Length sequence

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PN Sequence: Example
s1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 s2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 s3 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0

Spreading code

00111010...

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PN Sequences
A deterministically generated sequence that nearly satisfies these properties is referred to as a Pseudorandom Sequence (PN) Periodic binary sequences can be conveniently generated using linear feedback shift registers (LFSR) If the number of stages in the LFSR is r, P e 2r - 1 where P is the period of the sequence

PN Sequences
However, if the feedback connections satisfy a specific property, P = 2r - 1. Then the sequence is called a Maximal Length Shift Register (MLSR) or a PN sequence. Thus if r=15, P=32767. MLSR satisfies the randomness properties stated before

DSSS: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Each data bit is combined with a n-bit spreading code Logically the combination is an XOR, but using Bipolar notation instead of Unipolar designations for the bits, the system can be modeled with only a multiplier.
This means instead of a 0 and 1 data signal, -1 and 1 are used

DSSS
A

*0 is high C

C = A XOR B

DSSS Transmission (Theoretical)

The Data signal is generated and enters a spreader Inside the spreader, a pseudo noise signal is generated, and then XORed with the data signal
D(t) XOR N(t)= Sd(t)

The new signal is then modulated with an analog technique such as BPSK

DSSS Transmitter

Spreader Digital Data d(t)

Sd(t)

Modulator BPSK

S(t)

N(t)

PN Source

DSSS Reception (Theoretical)

Once the data is received, it is again demodulated and then sent into a despreader to produce the original signal.
Sd(t) XOR N(t) = D(t) XOR N(t) XOR N(t) = D(t)

DSSS Receiver
S(t) Demodulator BPSK C1(t) Sd(t) De-spreader Digital Data d(t)

PN Source

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Example

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmitter

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Using BPSK Example

Approximate Spectrum of DSSS Signal

Spreader

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits

Basic Operation
Typically 2k carriers frequencies forming 2k channels Channel spacing corresponds with bandwidth of input Each channel used for fixed interval

Frequency Hopping Example

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Transmitter)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum System (Receiver)

Slow and Fast FHSS

Frequency shifted every Tc seconds Duration of signal element is Ts seconds Slow FHSS has Tc u Ts Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in noise (or jamming)

Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)

Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)

FHSS Performance Considerations

Typically large number of frequencies used
Improved resistance to jamming