Networking Basics

Networking Evolution of Networking History

Standalone Device. Duplication of equipments and resources. Inability to communicate efficiently. Lack of networking management. Point to point communication not usually practical Devices are too far apart Large set of devices would need impractical number of connections Solution is a communications network
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Communication
Transmission of information. Examples:
Speaking. Smoke signal. Body language. Telephone. Broadcast systems (radio, television). Internet

Analyzing network
What is flowing ? What is flowing ? Data Data What different forms flow ? What different forms flow ? Text, Graphic, Video ... Text, Graphic, Video ... What rules govern flow ? What rules govern flow ? Standard, Protocol ... Standard, Protocol ... Where does the flow occur ? Where does the flow occur ? Cable, Atmosphere ... Cable, Atmosphere ...

 Addresses

Communication characteristics

Who are the source and the destination of a communication process?

Media
Where is the communication take place?

Protocols
How to make the communication process effectively?

Communication:
Human Address conversation
Hello Mr.A, I am B Media Atmosphere Protocol Language Speed Handshaking Source address, Destination address Media Cable, Fiber, Atmosphere Protocol Format Procedure

Data Address communication

Key Communications Tasks

Transmission System Utilization Interfacing Signal Generation Synchronization Exchange Management Error detection and correction Addressing and routing Recovery Message formatting Security Network Management
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Approaches to Networking
Devices connected using dedicated link more devices impractical Multipoint connectionsdistance, no. of. device increase beyond capacity Solution switching series of interlinked nodes (switches) temporary connection between devices linked to switch

Circuit switching
Connection Oriented Dedicated communications path established for the duration of the conversation Fixed Cost

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Space division paths spacially distributed crossbar switch

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Size of crossbar huge, 25% of crosspoint in use Multistage switching combination of crossbar in stages

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Multi path

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 Time division switching --uses time division multiplexing Time-slot interchange TDM bus

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TDM bus
Involves high speed bus with micro-switches swicthing at th time slot 1 in input side and one in output side

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 Connectionless Multiple communications proceed concurrently Packets, typically containing a few hundred bytes of data, are sent across shared connections Packets passed from node to node between source and destination No guaranteed capacity Cheaper fewer connection required

Packet switching

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Datagram approach
--each packet (datagram) independently

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Virtual circuit approach

Relation between packets of message or session is preserved Single route at beginning Switched virtual circuit only when required
Connection establishment Data transfer Connection release

Permanent virtual circuit same between two users -dedicated

Others cant use
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Switched virtual circuit

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Message switching
Store and forward Node stores after receiving, until appropriate is route free, then sends

Used for unintelligent devices, now no longer used

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(a)

Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

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Network hierarchy

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Two Broad Categories

Local Area Network

Wide Area Network

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Two Broad Categories

Local Area Network (LAN)
Span single building or small campus Typical speeds range from 10Mbps to 2Gbps Requires a Network Interface Card (NIC)

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Two Broad Categories

Wide Area Network (WAN)
Span oceans and continents Typical speeds range from 1.5 to 155 Mbps Requires packets switches & long distance communication lines

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Point-to-Point Line Configuration

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Multipoint Line Configuration

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Mesh Topology

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Star Topology

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Tree Topology

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Bus Topology

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Ring Topology

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Hybrid Topology

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OSI MODEL

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Evolution of networking standards SNA

Standard

Interconnection Development Simplification

Proprietary

TCP/IP

DECNET

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OSI model development

Researched and developed by the ISO International Organization for Standardizations.

1977: establish a subcommittee to develop a communications architecture. 1984: publish ISO-7498, the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model.
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OSI Reference model

It is an open framework within which networking standards can be developed. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which illustrates a particular network function.

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 It breaks network communication into smaller parts to make it easier to understand. It standardizes network components . It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other.

A layered model Advantages

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 Layer 7: Application Layer 6: Presentation Layer 5: Session Layer 4: Transport Layer 3: Network Layer 2: Data Link Layer 1: Physical

7 layers of the OSI reference model

All People Seem To Need Data Processing

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THE APPLICATION LAYER - Layer

Function

#7

Is the OSI layer that is closest to the user Provides a user interface. Provides network services to the users applications. Example :
Browser, Email, FTP, Telnet ...

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Applications used in network Client-Server processing application

The client side is located on the local The client side is located on the local computer and is the requestor of the computer and is the requestor of the services. services. The server side is located on a remote The server side is located on a remote computer and provides services in computer and provides services in response to the clients requests.
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Redirector
Redirector works with computer OS instead of specific application programs. Redirector allows to assign remote resources to logical names on the local computer. Examples of redirectors are:
NetBEUI. Novell IPX/SPX. NFS in TCP/IP.

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DNS: Problems with using IP address

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DNS
The DNS server is a device on a network that manages domain names and responds to requests from clients to translate a domain name into the associated IP address.

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DNS: System
..

com com
Companies

edu edu

gov gov

net net
Network providers

org org
Non Govt. organizations

int int
Internationa l org.

Educational Govt. Institutions organizations

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Email
E-mail client applications, such as Eudora, Outlook Express, and Netscape Mail, work with the POP3 protocol. For security, when message recipients check their e-mail they are often prompted for a password. An e-mail address consists of the recipients username and post-office address: ctt@yahoo.com.
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Telnet
Telnet software provides the ability to remotely access another computer. The Telnet application works mainly at the application, presentation and session layers of the OSI model.

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FTP
FTP is designed to download files or upload files on the Internet. An FTP session is established the same way in which a Telnet session is established. Just like Telnet, the FTP session is maintained until the client terminates it, or there is some sort of communication error.

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HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) works with the World Wide Web, which is the fastest growing and most used part of the Internet.

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The Presentation Layer - Layer # 6

Function Ensures that the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.

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Three main functions

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Data formatting

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Data encryption

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Data compression

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SESSION LAYER - Layer # 5 Functions

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Process
Dialog control:
In the conversation, each host plays dual roles: requesting service and replying with service. Dialogue control determining which role they are playing at any given moment. Agree a set of guidelines to use during the communicating with each other.

Dialog separation:
Order to Initiate, terminate and manage of communication. Using a checkpoint to synchronize.
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Dialog control

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Dialog separation

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TRANSPORT LAYER - Layer #4 Purpose of the transport layer

Transport and regulate the flow of information from source to destination, reliably and accurately. The end-to-end control:
Sliding windows. Sequencing numbers. Acknowledgments. Segmentation. Multiplexing.
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TCP and UDP

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Port

Both TCP and UDP use port (or socket) numbers to pass information to the upper layers.
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Range of ports
2 bytes: 0 65535.
Numbers below 255 : for public applications. Numbers from 255 - 1023 : assigned to companies for marketable applications. Numbers above 1023 : are unregulated.

End systems use port numbers to select proper applications. Originating source port numbers are dynamically assigned by the source host; usually, it is a number larger than 1023.

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Telnet port number

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 Provides connectivity and path selection between two host systems that may be located on geographically separated networks.
Logical address or IP address

The network layer Layer #3

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 Provides for the reliable transfer of data cross a physical link.

Physical address or MAC Address

The data-link layer Layer #2

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 Transmission of bit stream over a physical link between end systems.

Electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional specifications Physical data rate Distances Physical connector

The physical layer Layer #1

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Data Encapsulation

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Encapsulation example: Airmail

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Encapsulation example: Email

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Encapsulation example: Email

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Encapsulation

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TCP/IP MODEL

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TCP/IP model development

The late-60s The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) originally developed Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) to interconnect various defense department computer networks. The Internet, an International Wide Area Network, uses TCP/IP to connect networks across the world.
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4 layers of the TCP/IP model

Layer 4: Layer 3: Layer 2: Layer 1: access Application Transport Internet Network

It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI model. Do not confuse the layers of the two models.
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TCP/IP ----------- OSI

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The network access layer

Concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually make the physical link. All the details in the OSI physical and data link layers.
Electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional specifications. Data rate, Distances, Physical connector. Frames, physical addressing. Synchronization, flow control, error control.
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The internet layer

Send source packets from any network on the internetwork and have them arrive at the destination independent of the path and networks they took to get there.
Packets, Logical addressing. Internet Protocol (IP). Route , routing table, routing protocol.

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The transport layer

The transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction.
Segments, data stream, datagram. Connection oriented and connectionless. Transmission control protocol (TCP). User datagram protocol (UDP). End-to-end flow control. Error detection and recovery.
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The application layer

Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control. The TCP/IP combines all applicationrelated issues into one layer, and assures this data is properly packaged for the next layer.
FTP, HTTP, SMNP, DNS ... Format of data, data structure, encode Dialog control, session management
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TCP/IP protocol stack

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Similarities:

Comparing TCP/IP with OSI (cont.)

Both have layers. Both have application layers, though they include very different services. Both have comparable transport and network layers Packet-switched technology is assumed. Networking professionals need to know both.
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Differences:

Comparing TCP/IP with OSI (cont.)

TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer. TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers. Typically networks aren't built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide.
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Summary

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DATA LINK CONTROL PROTOCOL

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Data link control

Sender should know status of receiver then send Line discipline which and when Flow control amount of data before acknowledgement Error control detection and retransmission of missing or corrupt frames

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 ENQ/ACK
dedicated link between 2 terminal which as data to send (start communication) enquiry (enq) receiver is ready for the same Receiver send ack if free, else send nak (-ve ack) sender receives ack, send data after last data EOT(end of transmission) If no ack or nak, sender knows loss retransmits 3 attempts NAK for 3 attempts, disconnect link, retry later
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ENQ/ACK

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 POLL/SELECT
with primary and secondary stations (addressed) *primary to send data alerts secondary select (sel), with address of secondary the addressee responds with ack when ready, else nak * primary wants to receive asks each secondary (poll) secondary responds with ack when ready with data, else nak, ack-receive data, nak- next secondary

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Select

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Poll

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 Stop and wait

simple send one at a time send next after receiving acknowledgement ->long time taken incoming data checked and processed so requires buffer

Sliding window
size of window based on network fixed several frames (numbered) sent before acknowledgement, update window after acknowledgement
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Stop and wait

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Sliding window

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Example

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Error control
Automatic repeat request (ARQ) Error frames are detected and retransmission of the same is requested from the source Acts adjacent to flow control

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Stop wait ARQ

Damaged Frame

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Go back n ARQ

Damaged Frame

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Go back n ARQ

Lost Frame

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Go back n ARQ

Lost ACK

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Selective Reject

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Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules, or an agreement, that determines the format and transmission of data that make communication on a network more efficient.

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asynchronous
each character independent receiver does not need time of data from sender each frame with start bit and stop bit Used for MODEM Slow in this layer so synchronous used

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XMODEM

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Synchronous whole bit stream -- Chop into equal size faster

Bit oriented Character oriented succession of character (8 bits) individual bit control placement in frame control-coding (ASCII) -BSC (BISYNC) -SDLC -HDLC
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Binary Synchronous Transmission Protocol CRC-16 protocol is a 16 bit checksum Developed by IBM in 1960

BISYNC (BSC)

Used for batch communication between a System 360 computer and the IBM 2780 and 3780 Remote Job Entry terminals It requires every acknowledged(ACK) acknowledged(NACK) message or to be negatively

It has been used for file integrity check

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Simple Frame

A Frame with header

Multiblock Frame

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Multiframe Transmission

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Control Frame

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Control Frames

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Figure 11-12

Byte Stuffing

WCB/McGraw-Hill

113 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998

 HDLC High-Level Data Link Control SDLC Synchronous Data Link Control

HDLC is the protocol which is now considered an umbrella under which many Wide Area protocols sit. ITU-T developed HDLC in 1979, and within HDLC there are three types of stations defined SDLC is the oldest layer 2 protocol designed by IBM in 1975 to carry Systems Network Architecture (SNA) traffic .SDLC is the 114 precursor to HDLC.

High-Level Data Link Control

Primary Station - this completely controls all data link operations issuing commands from secondary stations and has the ability to hold separate sessions with different stations. Secondary Station - this can only send responses to one primary station. Secondary stations only talk to each other via a Primary station. Combined Station - this can transmit and receive commands and responses from one other station

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High-Level Data Link Control

Configuring a channel for use by a station can be done in one of three ways: Unbalanced - this configuration allows one primary station to talk to a number of secondary stations over halfduplex, full-duplex, switched, unswitched, point-to-point or multipoint paths. Symmetrical - where commands and responses are multiplexed over one physical channel when two stations with primary and secondary parts have a point-to-point link joining them. Balanced - where two combined stations communicate over a point-to-point link which can be full/half-duplex or switch/unswitched.

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HDLC Configuration

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High-Level Data Link Control

When transferring data, stations are in one of three modes Normal Response Mode (NRM) where the secondary station needs permission from the primary station before it can transmit data. Mainly used on multi-point lines. Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM) where the secondary station can send data without receiving permission from the primary station. This is hardly ever used. Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) where either station can initiate transmission without permission from the other. This is the most common mode used on point-to-point links.

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HDLC Frame Format

The following diagram details the HDLC frame format:

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HDLC Flag Field

Bit stuffing
data field more than 5 consecutive 1s, sixth replaced by zero

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HDLC Address Field

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HDLC Control Field

There are three types of HDLC frame types defined by the control field: Information Frames are used for the data transfer between stations. The send sequence, or next send N(S), and the receive sequence, or next receive N(R), hold the frame sequence numbers. The Poll/Final bit is called Poll when used by the primary station to obtain a response from a secondary station, and Final when used by the secondary station to indicate a response or the end of transmission. Supervisory Frames are used to acknowledge frames, request for retransmissions or to ask for suspension of transmission. The Supervisory code denotes the type of supervisory frame being sent. Unnumbered Frames are used for link initialisation or link disconnection. The Unnumbered bits indicate the type of 122 Unnumbered frame being used.

HDLC Information Field

HDLC FCS Field

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SDLC FRAME

Data - can contain Path Information Unit (PIU) or Exchange Identification (XID). Frame Check Sequence (FCS) - this check is carried out on the sending AND receiving of the frame.

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Difference between HDLC and SDLC

SDLC uses 16 bit checksum HDLC uses 32 bit checksum SDLC supports loop go ahead configuration HDLC does not support SDLC supports only one transfer mode HDLC supports 3 modes-namely1.normal response, 2.Asynchronous response, 3. Asynchronous balanced 125

Media access protocol

Token passing CSMA/CD

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Token Passing

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Token Passing

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Token Passing

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Token Passing

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Token Ring Frame

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Data Frame Fields

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Token Ring

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

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Common medium for transmission which and when to use medium access Ready for transmission check medium status carrier sensing Far away can sense free medium and start transmission collide with each other collision detection, reported to source

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MAC Frame

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CSMA with Collision Detection

CSMA/CD can be in one of three states: contention, transmission, or idle.

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