Digital modulation and Forward error correction

Modulation
Modulation

is the process by which some characteristics of a carrier signal is changed according to instantaneous value of another signal known as modulating signal.
Carrier

signal frequency is greater than the modulating frequency.

Typically

a high frequency sinusoidal waveform is used as carrier signal, but a square wave pulse train may also be 2 used.

Why do we modulate?
Efficient antennas of reasonable physical size needs to be constructed for radio communication systems . To send a signal over long distance it requires more energy. So when the frequency is low , energy will be obviously low. To increase the energy of the signal we need to increase the frequency. This is achieved by modulation. Modulation is required to transmit signals from various sources simultaneously over a common 3 channel by shifting them to different portions of

Types of modulation
Modulation

Anal

lati n

Di ital

lati n

Modulation techniques for analogue signals

Modulation techniques for digital signals

Analog Modulation
When an analog modulating signal is used to change the characteristics of a carrier signal,it is known as Analog Modulation. Two types: 1. Continuous wave modulation e.g.AM,FM,PM 2. Pulse modulation e.g.PAM,PWM,PPM

Digital Modulation


Digital modulation is the process by which digital symbols are transformed into waveforms that are compatible with the characteristics of the channel. To carry out digital modulation, we need:
A digital message or information or modulating signal and A sinusoid carrier wave or simply a carrier

Advantages of digital modulation

1)Digital modulation can easily detect and correct the noise. 2)Digital transmission gives complete freedom to multiplex digital data, voice and video giving the digital system more flexibility than the analog system. 3)Digital modulated signal can traverse long distance compared to analog modulation. 4)Security is more in digital modulation. 5)Better quality communication.

Basic digital communications system Transmitter

Analog signal Digital signal

EM waves (modulated signal)

Input transducer

Modulator

Transmission Channel

Carrier Receiver
analog signal digital signal

EM waves (modulated signal)

Output transducer

Demodulator

Digital Modulation Carrier

General form of the carrier wave is where Ac = amplitude in volts (V) [c = angular or radian frequency in rads-1 Jc = phase in radian (rad) Alternatively, since

c(t ) ! Ac cos([c t  Jc )

[ ! 2Tf

c(t ) ! Ac cos(2Tf c t  Jc )
where fc = frequency in hertz (Hz)
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Digital modulation techniques

Digital Modulation

Amplitude Shi t Keying ASK

Frequency Shi t Keying FSK

Phase Shi t Keying PSK

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Changing Changing frequency amplitude (fc) of (Ac) of carrier carrier according to according to modulating modulating signal signal

Changing Combination phase (Jc) of ASK and (J PSK of carrier according to modulating signal
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

ASK amplitude of carrier is changed according to the modulating signal
ASK modulator can be represented by the schematic diagram on the right m(t) y(t)

c(t)

y (t ) ! m(t ) v c(t )
m(t): modulating signal (baseband signal) c(t): carrier wave (high frequency cosine)
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) ctd

Binary ASK also called on-off keying (OOK) onData stream: 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Information or message or baseband data Carrier wave or carrier

OOK waveform (bandpass signal)

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

FSK frequency of carrier is changed according to modulating signal Binary FSK (BFSK) represents ones and zeros by carrier pulses of two distinct frequencies, f1 and f2 Binary zero p frequency f1 Binary one p frequency f2

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) ctd

Data stream: Information or message or baseband data Carrier wave or carrier

BFSK waveform (bandpass signal)

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

BFSK signal can be c1(t)=A cos(2Tf1t) cos(2T considered as the combination of two OOK m(t) signals: BFSK One representing the signal baseband data stream m(t) {m(t)}modulated onto a carrier with frequency f1, and c2(t)=A cos(2Tf2t) cos(2T One representing the inverse data stream Schematic of BFSK modulator: as the {m(t)} modulated onto a combination of two OOK carrier with frequency f2
signals
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1)

2)

Frequency Shift Keying demodulation

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

PSK phase of carrier is changed according to modulating signal

c (t ) !

cos( 2Tf c t  Jc )

Binary PSK (BPSK) represents ones and zeros by shifting the phase by J1 and J2 Binary zero p phase J1 (0 rad or 0r) 0r Binary one p phase J2 (T rad or 180r) 180r
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Phase Shift Keying (PSK) ctd

c(t)

Jc= 0 rad (=0r)

c(t+ T/2)

Jc= T/2 rad (=90r)

c(t+

T)

c(t+ 3T/2)

Jc= T rad (=180r)

Jc= 3T/2 rad (=270r) 18

Phase Shift Keying (PSK) ctd

Data stream: Information or message or baseband data Carrier wave or carrier

BPSK waveform (bandpass signal)

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BPSK: Phasor or vector diagram (constellation diagram)

Binary: two possible states m1 and m2
Euclidean distance: distance between two message points

J=T/2

Decision region 2

Decision region 1

J=T

m2

m1

J=0

Decision boundary

J=3T/2
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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) - Phasor or vector diagram

Decision boundary

Quadrature: four possible states m1, m2,m3 and m4 J=T/2

Decision region 2

m2
Decision region 3 Decision region 1

J=T

m3 m4
Decision region 4

m1

J=0

Decision boundary

J=3T/2

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M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) Phasor or vector diagram

M-ary: M possible states m1, m2, m3, mM
Region 3 Region 4

J=T/2 m3 m4

Signal constellation for 8-PSK 8J=T

Region 5

Region 2

m2 m1 m6 m8 m7
Region 8

m5

J=0
Region 1

Region 6

J=3T/2
Region 7
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PSK General Expression



The general analytic expression of PSK is more popularly written as

2E cos[c t  Ji (t ) i (t ) ! T
 

E is the symbol energy and T is the information signals symbol time duration. i=1, 2, ..M. Phase term Ji(t) has M discrete values given by

2Ti Ji (t ) ! M

BPSK, M=2; QPSK, M=4; 8-PSK, M=8; etc 823

PSK Coding


BPSK: each state (m1, m2) is represented by one digit (0, 1) QPSK: each state (m1, m2, m3, m4) is represented by two digits (00, 01, 10, 11) 8PSK: each state is presented by three digits (000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111) Etc

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QPSK Implementation
By expanding the general expression, QPSK can be implemented in the following way.  In QPSK the information bit stream is divided to form two streams, in-phase (I) and in quadrature (Q), comprising of inthe even and odd bits of the original information signal respectively  Since each transmitted symbol is represented by two successive binary pulses, the symbol rate of the I and Q waveforms is half the bit rate of the information signal (Rs=Rb/log2M). Rs=Rb/log  Subsequently the bipolar I and Q streams are used to modulate the components of a carrier frequency in quadrature


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QPSK Modulator
 

Two carriers are in phase quadrature. In the case of the in phase data stream, the phase of the cosine carrier is shifted, at symbol transitions, between 0o and 180o Equivalently the quadrature data stream shifts the phase of the sine function between 90o and 270o The modulated signals are combined linearly to produce the QPSK waveform (t)=0o, 90o, 180o and 270o (t)=0

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QPSK Waveform

QPSK Demodulator

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

 

Combination of ASK and PSK What this actually means is that the amplitude and the phase of the carrier wave are simultaneously changed according to the information you want to transmit.

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM is the encoding of information into a carrier wave by variation of the amplitude of both the carrier wave and a 'quadrature' carrier that is 90 out of 90 phase with the main carrier in accordance with two input sign

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QAM Modulator

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Error Detection and Correction

Error Detection and Correction

 Types

of Errors

 Detection  Error

Correction

Error Detection and Correction

 Data

can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, error must be detected and corrected  are implemented either at the data link layer or the transport layer of the OSI model

Application

Application Interface

Tran port layer

Network Layer

Error correc
Logic link control

Datalink layer

MAC Layer

PHY Layer

Error detection
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Type of Errors

Type of Errors(contd)
 Single-Bit Single-

Error is when only one bit in the data unit has changed.

Type of Errors(contd)
 Multiple-Bit Multiple-

Error is when two or more nonconsecutive bits in the data unit have changed.

 Burst

Error means that two or more consecutive bits in the data unit have changed

Type of Errors(contd)

Detection


Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination

Detection(contd)
 Redundancy

Detection(contd)
 Detection

methods

VRC(Vertical Redundancy Check) LRC(Longitudinal Redundancy) CRC(Cyclical redundancy Check) Checksum

Detection(contd)
 VRC(Vertical

Redundancy Check)

A parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s(including the parity bit) becomes even for even-parity evencheck or odd for odd-parity check odd VRC can detect all single-bit errors. It can singledetect multiple-bit or burst errors only the multipletotal number of errors is odd.

Detection(contd)
 Even

parity VRC concept

 LRC(Longitudinal

Redundancy Detection(contd) Check)

Parity bits of all the positions are assembled into a new data unit, which is added to the end of the data block

Detection(contd)


CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check) ~ is based on binary division.

Detection(contd)
A

polynomial representing a divisor

Detection(contd)



CRC generator
uses modular-2 division. modular- division.

Binary Division in a CRC Generator

Binary Division Detection(contd) in a CRC Checker

Detection(contd)
Checksum
 used

by the higher layer protocols  is based on the concept of redundancy(VRC, LRC, CRC .)

 Checksum

Generator Detection(contd)

Error Correction
~ can be handled in two ways


When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.This is also known as Automatic repeat request (ARQ) A receiver can use an error-correcting code, errorwhich automatically corrects certain errors.(FEC)

Error Correction(contd)
Error Correction methods
1. Hamming codes 2. Convolutional codes 3. Reed Solomon codes

Error Correction(contd)

  

Hamming Code(n,k)
Developed by R.W .Hamming Linear block codes Criteria: Criteria:2r > m+r+1 m+r+1 m no. of message bits no. r no. of parity bits no. Hamming codes can detect up to two simultaneous bit errors, and correct single-bit errors. single- errors. Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code-: code-

 

Error Correction(contd)
 each

r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits

r1 r2 r4 r8 = = = = bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 bits 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11 bits 4, 5, 6, 7 bits 8, 9, 10, 11

Error Correction(contd)
 Redundancy

bits calculation(contd)

Error Correction(contd)
 Redundancy

bits calculation

 Calculating

Error Correction(contd) the r values

Error Correction(contd)
 Error

Detection and Correction

 Error

Error Correction(contd) detection using Hamming Code

Convolutional Codes
Convolutional codes work on bit or symbol streams of arbitrary length.  Error checking and correcting carried out continuously (n, k, K) code Input processes k bits at a time Output produces n bits for every k input bits K = constraint factor k and n generally very small n-bit output of (n, k, K) code depends on: (n Current block of k input bits Previous K-1 blocks of k input bits


Convolutional Encoder

Trellis and state diagram

Convolutional Codes
Decoding
Trellis diagram expanded encoder diagram Viterbi code error correction algorithm oCompares received sequence with all possible transmitted sequences oAlgorithm chooses path through trellis whose coded sequence differs from received sequence in the fewest number of places oOnce a valid path is selected as the correct path, the decoder can recover the input data bits from the output code bits

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Convolutional Codes
Convolutional codes are used extensively in numerous applications in order to achieve reliable data transfer, including digital video, radio,mobile communication, video, radio, communication, and satellite communication. These codes are often communication. implemented in concatenation with a hard-decision code, hardparticularly Reed Solomon codes.

Reed Solomon codes

 Reed Solomon codes are linear block codes.  Specified as RS(n,k). RS(n,k).  RS will correct code as long as 2s + r < t.  Correct up to t/2 errors or up to t erasures. erasures.

t number of redundancy symbols s errors in block r erasures in block (occur when the position of an error is known.)

Reed Solomon codes (Cont.)

Otherwise (if 2s + r < t is not upheld),either upheld),either:

1. The decoder will detect but cannot recover the original code word. Or: mis2. The decoder will mis-decode and recover an incorrect code word without any indication. The probability of each of those cases depends on the specific RS code.

Reed Solomon codes (Cont.)

ReedReed-Solomon codes are used to correct errors in many systems including: Storage devices (including tape, Compact Disk, DVD, barcodes, etc) Wireless or mobile communications (including cellular telephones, microwave links, etc) Satellite communications Digital television / DVB HighHigh-speed modems such as ADSL, xDSL, etc

Detect Error On Credit Card

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Detect Error On Credit Card

The test performed on the credit card number is called a parity check equation. The last digit is a function of the other digits in the credit card and is called check digit digit.This is how credit card numbers are generated by Visa and MasterCard. They start with an account number that is 15 digits long and use the parity check equation to find the value of the 16th digit.

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Formula for detecting error

Luhn formula
Counting from the check digit, which is the rightmost, and moving left, double the value of every second digit. Sum the digits of the products (e.g., 10 = 1 + 0 = 1, 14 = 1 + 4 = 5) together with the undoubled digits from the original number. If the total modulo 10 is equal to 0 (if the total ends in zero) then the number is valid according to the Luhn formula; else it is not valid.

Detect Error On Credit Card

Double and add the digits of the product

Check digit
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Now the0*2 + 1*2 +2*2 + test (8*2 + 6*2 + 4*2 + 3*2 +

5*2) = (1+6)+(1+2)+8+6+0+2+4+(1+0)=31 (9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 1 + 8 + 4 + 4) = 41 31 + 41 = 72 mod (10) = 2

2
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