LECTURE-1

By Shrivishal Tripathi Asst. Professor Lovely Professional University

MICROCOMPUTER

The term microcomputer is generally synonymous with personal computer (PC), or a computer that depends on a microprocessor. Microcomputers are designed to be used by individuals, whether in the form of PCs, workstations or notebook computers. A microcomputer contains a central processing unit (CPU) on a microchip (the microprocessor), a memory system (typically read-only memory and random access memory), a bus system and I/O ports, typically housed in a motherboard.

All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components: Memory: Enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs. Mass storage device: Allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives. Input device: Usually a keyboard and mouse are the input device through which data and instructions enter a computer. Output device: A display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished. Central processing unit (CPU): The heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions. In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

MICROPROCESSOR
Microprocessor is a program-controlled device, which fetches the instructions from memory, decodes and executes the instructions. Most Micro Processors are single- chip devices. A microprocessor (sometimes abbreviated P) is a digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC). One or more microprocessors typically serve as a central processing unit (CPU) in a computer system or handheld device. Microprocessors made possible the advent of the microcomputer.

..
General-purpose microprocessor

CPU for Computers No RAM, ROM, I/O on CPU chip itself Example Intels x86, Motorolas 680x0

CPU GeneralPurpose Microprocessor

Data Bus RAM ROM

Many chips on mothers board

I/O Port

Time r

Seria l COM Port

Address Bus General-Purpose Microprocessor System

MICROPROCESSOR
Brain or Engine of a computer is called Processor or Microprocessor or Central Processing Unit (CPU ) which is a very important chip found inside computer. y It interprets computer program instructions and processes data. y Microprocessor is often abbreviated MPU for Microprocessor Unit or just MP . y It is the most expensive single component found inside the system.
y

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors: Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Clock speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute. In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer).

Processors are rated based on several factors that affect performance and the motherboards that can support them. There are many components to support the function of microprocessors. Properties of this components determine the quality and functionality of the microprocessor. Some of the components which are used inside processor are:
Transistor Register Clock

TRANSISTOR
y y y y y

y y

The number of transistors available has a huge effect on the performance of a processor. With more transistors, much more powerful multipliers capable of single-cycle speeds become possible. More transistors also allow a technology called pipelining . In a pipelined architecture instruction execution overlaps . Pipelining increases the rate at which instructions are completed, with the result that a programs overall execution time is lowered . Pipelining allows the processor to complete more instructions in a given period of time. Today microprocessors contain tens of millions of microscopic transistors.

REGISTER
y y

Register is a small amount of very fast computer memory which is found inside the microprocessor. CPU registers are very special memory locations. They are not part of main memory; the CPU implements them on-chip It is used to speed the execution of computer programs and provide the fastest way for a CPU to access data Modern computer work on the principle of moving data from main memory into faster registers, carrying out operation on the data, and then moving the result back into main memory. This phenomenon is called as load-store architecture .

CLOCK
y y

y y y y

Clock speed or clock rate , is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions. Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components. The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per second. The clock signals are generated by small shiny component called crystal. Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).

MICROCONTROLLER

A highly integrated chip that contains all the components comprising a controller. Typically this includes a CPU, RAM, some form of ROM, I/O ports, and timers. Unlike a general-purpose computer, which also includes all of these components, a microcontroller is designed for a very specific task - to control a particular system. A microcontroller differs from a microprocessor, which is a general-purpose chip that is used to create a multi-function computer or device and requires multiple chips to handle various tasks. A microcontroller is meant to be more self-contained and independent, and functions as a tiny, dedicated computer.

A smaller computer On-chip RAM, ROM, I/O ports... Example Motorolas 6811, Intels 8051, Zilogs Z8 and PIC 16X

CP U

RAM

ROM Seria I/O Time l Port r COM Port

A single chip
Microcontroller

 The great advantage of microcontrollers, as opposed to using larger microprocessors, is that the parts-count and design costs of the item being controlled can be kept to a minimum. They are typically designed using CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) technology, an efficient fabrication technique that uses less power and is more immune to power spikes than other techniques. Microcontrollers are sometimes called embedded microcontrollers, which just means that they are part of an embedded system that is, one part of a larger device or system.

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor CPU is stand-alone, RAM, ROM, I/O, timer are separate designer can decide on the amount of ROM, RAM and I/O ports. expansive versatility general-purpose Microcontroller CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O and timer are all on a single chip fix amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, I/O ports for applications in which cost, power and space are critical single-purpose

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR

A

Digital Signal Processor is a specialpurpose CPU (Central Processing Unit) that provides ultra-fast instruction sequences, such as shift and add, and multiply and add, which are commonly used in math-intensive signal processing applications. A digital signal processor (DSP) is a specialized microprocessor designed specifically for digital signal processing, generally in real time.

Digital operating by the use of discrete signals to represent data in the form of numbers. Signal a variable parameter by which information is conveyed through an electronic circuit. Processing to perform operations on data according to programmed instructions. Digital signal processing (DSP) is the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals.

DSP has three major subfields: Audio signal processing, Digital image processing and Speech processing. Since the goal of DSP is usually to measure or filter continuous real-world analog signals, the first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by using an analog to digital converter. Often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a digital to analog converter
.

Characteristics of Digital Signal Processors: Separate program and data memories (Harvard architecture). Special Instructions for SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) operations. Only parallel processing, no multitasking. The ability to act as a direct memory access device if in a host environment. Takes digital data from ADC (Analog-Digital Converter) and passes out data which is finally output by converting into analog by DAC (Digital-Analog Converter). analog input-->ADC-->DSP-->DAC--> analog output.

EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF INTEL MICROPROCESSORS

Intel 4004 Year of introduction 1971 4-bit microprocessor 4 KB main memory 45 instructions PMOS technology was first programmable device which was used in calculators

INTEL 8008
Year of introduction 1972 8-bit version of 4004 16 KB main memory 48 instructions PMOS technology Slow

INTEL 8080
Year of introduction 1973 8-bit microprocessor 64 KB main memory 2 microseconds clock cycle time 500,000 instructions/sec 10X faster than 8008 NMOS technology Drawback was that it needed three power supplies. Small computers (Microcomputers) were designed in mid 1970s using 8080 as CPU.

INTEL 8085
Year of introduction 1975 8-bit microprocessor-upgraded version of 8080 64 KB main memory 1.3 microseconds clock cycle time 246 instructions Intel sold 100 million copies of this 8-bit microprocessor uses only one +5v power supply.

INTEL 8086/8088
Year of introduction 1978 for 8086 and 1979 for 8088 16-bit microprocessors Data bus width of 8086 is 16 bit and 8 bit for 8088 1 MB main memory 400 nanoseconds clock cycle time 6 byte instruction cache for 8086 and 4 byte for 8088 Other improvements included more registers and additional instructions In 1981 IBM decided to use 8088 in its personal computer

INTEL 80186
Year of introduction 1982 16-bit microprocessor-upgraded version of 8086 1 MB main memory Contained special hardware like programmable counters, interrupt controller etc. Never used in the PC But was ideal for systems that required a minimum of hardware

INTEL 80286
Year of introduction 1983 16-bit high performance microprocessor with memory management & protection 16 MB main memory Few additional instructions to handle extra 15 MB Instruction execution time is as little as 250 ns Concentrates on the features needed to implement MULTITASKING

INTEL 80386
Year of introduction 1986 Intels first practical 32-bit microprocessor 4 GB main memory Improvements include page handling in virtual environment Includes hardware circuitry for memory management and memory assignment Memory paging and enhanced I/O permissions

INTEL 80486
Year of introduction 1989 32-bit high performance microprocessor 4 GB main memory Incorporates 80387-like floating point coprocessor and 8 K byte cache on one package About half of the instructions executed in 1 clock instead of 2 on the 80386

PENTIUM
Year of introduction 1993 32-bit microprocessor, 64-bit data bus and 32-bit address bus 4 GB main memory Double clocked 120 and 133MHz versions Fastest version is the 233MHz, Dual integer processor 16 KB L1 cache (split instruction and data: 8 KB each)

PENTIUM PRO
Year of introduction 1995 32-bit microprocessor, formerly code-named P6 64 GB main memory, 64-bit data bus and 36-bit address bus 16 KB L1 cache (split instruction/data: 8 KB each), 256 KB L2 cache Uses three execution engines Intel launched this processor for the server market

PENTIUM II
Year of introduction 1997 32-bit microprocessor, 64-bit data bus and 36-bit address bus, MMX 64 GB main memory 32 KB split instruction/data L1 caches (16 KB each) Module integrated 512KB L2 cache (133MHz) A version of P2 called Xeon; specifically designed for high-end applications

PENTIUM III
Year of introduction 1999 32-bit microprocessor, 64-bit data bus and 36-bit address bus 64 GBmain memory Dual Independent Bus (simultaneous L2 and system memory access) On-chip 256 KB L2 cache P3 was available in clock frequencies of up to 1 GHz

PENTIUM IV
Year of introduction 2002 32-bit microprocessor, 64-bit data bus and 36-bit address bus 64 GB main memory 1.4 to 1.9 GHz and the latest at 3.20 GHz and 3.46GHz (Hyper-Threading) 1MB/512KB/256KB L2 cache Specialized for streaming video, game and DVD applications

CONT.
Intel Pentium 4 microprocessors were based on completely new NetBurst micro architecture, which differed significantly from P6 micro-architecture used in Pentium II/Pentium III microprocessor families. y The Pentium 4 processor runs at up to 3.8 GHz and has undergone several improvements since it was first introduced in 2000 . y One of key features of Pentium 4 processor was HyperPipelined Technology - 20-stage pipeline, which was two times longer than in previous generation of Pentium processors. While longer pipelines are less efficient than shorter ones, they allow the CPU to reach higher frequencies, and thus increase CPU performance.
y

MODERN PROCESSOR-INTEL DUAL-CORE PROCESSOR

In April of 2005 , Intel announced the Intel Pentium processor Extreme Edition , featuring an Intel dualcore processor , which can provide immediate advantages for people looking to buy systems that boost multitasking computing power and improve the throughput of multithreaded applications. y An Intel dual-core processor consists of two complete execution cores in one physical processor , both running at the same frequency. Both cores share the same packaging and the same interface with the chipset/memory. y Overall, an Intel dual-core processor offers a way of delivering more capabilities while balancing energyefficient performance, and is the first step in the multi-core processor future.
y

MODERN PROCESSOR-INTEL CORE 2 QUAD PROCESSOR

The Intel Core 2 Quad processor is the latest in cutting edge processor technology for the desktop PC. y Based on the new Intel Core micro-architecture , the Intel Core 2 Quad processor delivers four complete execution cores within a single processor , delivering unprecedented performance and responsiveness in multi-threaded and multi-tasking business and home use environments.
y

MODERN PROCESSOR-AMD ATHLON 64 X2 DUAL-CORE

The AMD Athlon 64 X2 Dual-Core processor is built for powerful desktop, enabling it for high performance. y It is essentially a processor consisting of two Athlon 64 cores joined together on one die with additional control logic. y Dual-core processors contain two processing cores, residing on one chip, that perform calculations on two streams of data, thereby increasing efficiency and speed while running multiple programs and the new generation of multi-threaded software. AMD officially started shipping the Athlon 64 X2 at in June 2005 . AMD also designed processor for notebooks include the Turion 64 Mobile , Mobile Athlon 64 , Athlon 64 for notebooks, Mobile Athlon XP-M and mobile Sempron.
y