Definition

of matter Types of particles in matter Kinetic theory of matter Change in state of matter State of matter at room temperature Heating process of solid (i) Heating process of solid (ii)

Can b fined as anyt ing t at as mass and occupies space. Made f tiny and discrete particles. Parti les t at make matter an be in t e f rm f at ms, i ns r m lecules.

At ms (metal, alf metal, noble gas) Molecules (covalent element / com ound) Ions (ionic com ound)

inetic t eory of matter (arrangement and movement of particles) SOLID Packed closely Arranged orderly Strong forces between articles Vibrate and rotate at fixed osition LIQUID Packed closely Not arranged orderly Strong forces between articles (weaker t an in solid) Move randomly GAS Very far apart Not arranged orderly Weak forces between particles Move randomly

Characteristics of the three states of matter State f Characteristic Dens Compress b l S pe None Def nite Definite The slowest M er e Low Imposs ble None variable The fastest Almos mposs ble Follows the shape of container Definite Moderatel fast atter Solid Liquid Gas

Vol me Diff sion

Sublimation

Melting

Boiling

Freezing

Condensation

Sublimation

Change in state Solid Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Gas Liquid Gas Gas Liquid Solid Solid

Process Melting Boiling Sublimation Condensation Freezing Sublimation

Energy change Energy is absorbed Energy is absorbed Energy is absorbed Energy is released Energy is released Energy is released

Melting Point Boiling Point Freezing Point

T e temperature w ere solid start to change to liquid The temperature where liquid start to change to gas The temperature where liquid start to change to solid

Melting Point

Boiling Point

State at room temperature

More than 25C Less than 25C Less than 25C

More than 25C More than 25C Less than 25C

Solid Liquid Gas

emperat re ( ) S Solid L Liquid G Gas

G Boiling point L S+L S L+G

Melting point

t1

t2

t3

t4

ime (min)

Explanation based on kinetic theory of matter 0 t1

Matter in solid state

t1 t2
Matter in solid and liquid state

t2 t3
Matter in liquid state

t3 t4
Matter in liquid and gaseous state Some particles closed to each other and some far apart Not orderly arranged Kinetic energy constant

t4 t5
Matter in gaseous state Particles far away from each other Not orderly arranged Kinetic energy increase

Some particles Particles Particles not are closely closely packed packed / not closely packed closely packed Orderly arranged Kinetic energy increase Not orderly arranged Kinetic energy constant Not orderly arranged Kinetic energy increase

Development

of the atomic structure (i) Development of the atomic structure (ii) Development of the atomic structure (iii) Development of the atomic structure (iv) Development of the atomic structure (v) Formulae

Scientist

Theory / Contribution All matter is composed of atoms. Cannot be created or destroyed. All the atoms of an element are identical. Atoms of different elements are different.

Model

John alton (1766-1844)

Scientist

Theory / Contribution Atom as a positive sphere embedded with rings of electron. Discover electron

Model

J.J. Thomson (1856-1940)

Positive matter Negative electron

Scientist

Theory / Contribution Almost all mass and all positive charges are concentrated in small region at centre of atom. Nucleus-central core of an atom. Number of proton=number of electron. Discover proton

Model

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)

Nucleus

Electron

Scientist

Theory / Contribution Electrons are arranged in concentric circular paths around nucleus of atom. Electrons in a particular path have fixed energy. Electrons can jump from one orbit to another.
Electron

Model

Neils Bohr (1885-1962)

Electrons move around nucleus in orbit

Nucleus contain proton

Shell

Scientist

Theory / Contribution Nucleus has neutrons.

Electron

Model
Shell

Discover nucleus

James Chadwick (1891-1974)

Nucleus that contain protons and neutrons

Proton numbers
Proton number = number of proton in atom

Nucleon numbers
Nucleon number = number of proton + number of neutrons Number of neutrons = nucleon number number of protons =nucleon number proton number

Definition of

isotopes Uses of isotopes (i) Uses of isotopes (ii) Uses of isotopes (iii) Uses of isotopes (iv) Uses of isotopes (v) Uses of isotopes (vi) Uses of isotopes (vii)

Isotopes are atoms of certain elements which have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms. It can also can be defined as atoms of certain elements with the same proton numbers but with different nucleon numbers. Three important points to define isotopes.
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element. Isotopes have the same number of protons or same

proton numbers. Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons or nucleon numbers.

There are two types of isotopes, namely

The stable isotopes (non-radioactive) The non-stable isotopes (radioactive).

Unstable isotopes go through radioactive decay and emit radiation and they are known as radioisotopes. Radioisotopes have many applications in daily life.

Medical

Gamma rays of cobalt-60 are used to kill cancer cells without surgery in patients. This treatment is known as radiotherapy. Patients with skin cancer can be treated using beta rays from the isotopes phosphorus-32 and strontium-90 Medical instruments such as surgical equipment, syringes and bandages can sterilize by using gamma rays. Radioisotopes are also used as tracers. A small amount of sodium-24 is injected into the patient's body. A radioactive detector is then used to detect accumulation of sodium-24 and therefore detect tumours and blood clots before they become dangerous. This tracing method is also used to investigate the thyroid glands by measuring the uptake of iodine-131. Plutonium-238 in a nuclear battery is used to produce small electric shocks in the heart pacemaker. People with irregular heartbeats need to have a heart pacemaker implanted inside their chest. The nuclear battery of the pacemaker provides a tiny electrical shock to ensure a steady heartbeat.

Agricultural
Radio isotopes are used to cause mutation in insects so as to make them sterile or to cause death. These serve as pest control in agriculture. The metabolism of phosphorus by plants can be studied using phosphate fertilisers that contain phosphorus-32. A small amount of phosphorus-32 is used in fertilisers. The radiation produced by phosphorus32decaying is detected by a Geiger-Miller counter. This method can trace the passage of phosphate ions in plants..Carbon-14 is used to study the passage of carbon during photosynthesis in plants.

Industrial
Isotope sodium-24 is used to detect leakage

of underground pipes. Beta rays are used to control the thickness of plastic, paper and metal sheets in factory. Gamma rays are used to detect whether cans or bottles are filled up to the required amount. Sodium-24 is used to measure the wear out rate of engine in a vehicle.

Food Preservation
The gamma rays from cobalt-60 are used to

kill bacteria in food to make fresh vegetables and fruits last longer without any change in quality, flavour and texture of food. Gamma rays are used to inhibit budding in potatoes.

Archeology
Radioisotope carbon-14 is used to study and

estimate the age of ancient artifacts. This method is named as the radiocarbon dating.

Production of Energy
Plutonium is used in nuclear reactors to

produce electrical energy.

The danger of radioactive isotopes:

Radioactive isotopes are very dangerous if it is misused. Short-term exposure to radioactive rays: x May kill or destroy the cells in our body and cause organ damage x Cause rashes and burns on the exposed skin Long-term exposure to radioactive rays may: x Abuse mutation in our genes and abnormalities in newborn babies x isturb the growth and division of cells and consequently cause cancer.

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